Diccionario Bíblico - Letra A - King James Version Bible

AARON

From the time Moses set out to free Israel from Egypt, Aaron his brother played an important part in the young nation’s development. He remained in a position of influence and responsibility until the day of his death, forty years later (Exod 7:7; Num 33:39).

Early developments

Although Aaron was three years older than Moses (Exod 7:7), he willingly accepted Moses’ supreme leadership of the nation. He became Moses’ chief spokesman and personal assistant (Exod 4:10-16; 4:2930; 7:1-2,10,19; 8:5,17,25). As Moses grew in confidence, he became less dependent upon Aaron in his public activities (Exod 9:13,22,33). Aaron, however, continued to support Moses, especially in prayer (Exod 17:12). Aaron was one of the privileged few who went with Moses up on to the mountain of God. He was also one of those to whom Moses entrusted the leadership of Israel during his absence (Exod 24:1-2,9,14). Aaron proved to be a weak leader, and was easily persuaded to build an idol as a visible symbol of the invisible God (Exod 32:1-6,21-25). When Moses challenged the faithful to fight against this idolatry, the men of the tribe of Levi responded. God rewarded them by promising that in the new religious order, the Levites would be his chosen religious servants (Exod 32:26-29). Levi was the tribe to which Moses and Aaron belonged (Exod 6:16-20). God had already told Moses that in the new religious order, Aaron and his sons were to be the priests, with Aaron the high priest (Exod 28:1-4). In the generations to follow, although all Levites were to be religious officials, only those of the family of Aaron could be priests (Num 3:3-10; see LEVITE; PRIEST).

Troubles along the way

Early developments Although Aaron was three years older than Moses (Exod 7:7), he willingly accepted Moses’ supreme leadership of the nation. He became Moses’ chief spokesman and personal assistant (Exod 4:10-16; 4:2930; 7:1-2,10,19; 8:5,17,25). As Moses grew in confidence, he became less dependent upon Aaron in his public activities (Exod 9:13,22,33). Aaron, however, continued to support Moses, especially in prayer (Exod 17:12). Aaron was one of the privileged few who went with Moses up on to the mountain of God. He was also one of those to whom Moses entrusted the leadership of Israel during his absence (Exod 24:1-2,9,14). Aaron proved to be a weak leader, and was easily persuaded to build an idol as a visible symbol of the invisible God (Exod 32:1-6,21-25). When Moses challenged the faithful to fight against this idolatry, the men of the tribe of Levi responded. God rewarded them by promising that in the new religious order, the Levites would be his chosen religious servants (Exod 32:26-29). Levi was the tribe to which Moses and Aaron belonged (Exod 6:16-20). God had already told Moses that in the new religious order, Aaron and his sons were to be the priests, with Aaron the high priest (Exod 28:1-4). In the generations to follow, although all Levites were to be religious officials, only those of the family of Aaron could be priests (Num 3:3-10; see LEVITE; PRIEST). Troubles along the way In spite of his devoted service to God, Aaron had his disappointments and failures. His two older sons made an offering contrary to the way God had instructed them, and were punished with instant death (Lev 10:1-3). On another occasion, he and his sister Miriam showed some jealousy against Moses because of Moses’ supreme position in Israel. When Miriam, who had led the criticism, was punished with leprosy, Aaron confessed his wrong and asked God to heal her (Num 12:1-2,9-12). Just as Aaron had been jealous of Moses’ position as supreme leader, so other Levites grew jealous of Aaron’s position as high priest (Num 16:1-11). God destroyed the rebels (Num 16:31-35) and sent a plague on the people who had supported them; but Aaron prayed for them and the plague stopped (Num 16:47-48). By the miraculous budding of Aaron’s rod, God emphasized afresh that only those of the family of Aaron were to be priests (Num 17:1-11). Moses and Aaron were guilty of disobedience to God when, in anger at the people’s constant complaining, they struck the rock at Meribah. God punished them by assuring them that they would never enter the promised land (Num 20:2,10-13). Soon after, when the journeying Israelites reached Mt Hor, Aaron died. Before he died, however, there was a public ceremony to appoint Eleazar, Aaron’s eldest surviving son, as the replacement high priest (Num 20:22-29).

ABARIM

Bordering the Jordan River on its eastern side was a region that in the south was commonly known as the Plains of Moab. Within this region was a mountainous area known as Abarim, which contained the prominent peak, Mt Nebo. Israel camped on the Plains of Moab while making final preparations to cross Jordan and conquer Canaan. From Mt Nebo Moses viewed the land on the other side of the river before he died (Num 33:4748; Deut 32:49; 34:1,7).

ABBA

Abba was a common word in the Aramaic and Hebrew languages, and meant ‘father’. It was a warm and informal term used in the everyday language of family life.
Jews of Old Testament times never used abba when addressing God, but Jesus used it when praying to his Father (Mark 14:36). The early Christians also addressed God as Abba; for, through Christ, God has adopted believers as his sons and made them joint heirs with Christ of his heavenly inheritance (Rom 8:15-17; Gal 4:5-6; cf. 3:26; see ADOPTION).

ABEL

The second son of Adam and Eve, Abel was a keeper of sheep. Like his elder brother Cain, he made an offering to God of things God had given him (Gen 4:1-4). Abel was a righteous man (Matt 23:35), and he offered his sacrifice in a thankful attitude of sincere faith (Gen 4:4; Heb 11:4). Cain was an unrighteous man (1 John 3:12) and offered his sacrifice in the wrong attitude. God therefore rejected his sacrifice (Gen 4:5; for further details see SACRIFICE). In envy and anger, Cain killed Abel (Gen 4:8). But God gave to Adam and Eve another son, Seth, who helped maintain the sort of faith in God that Abel had shown (Gen 4:25-26).

ABIATHAR

When Saul ordered the slaughter of Ahimelech and the other priests at Nob, only one person escaped, and that was Ahimelech’s son, Abiathar (1 Sam 22:18-20). He joined David and the others who were fleeing from Saul, and acted as priest for them (1 Sam 23:6,9; 30:7). Later, when David became king, Abiathar and another priest, Zadok, became part of David’s royal court (2 Sam 8:17). At the time of Absalom’s rebellion, when David was forced to flee Jerusalem, the two priests stayed behind to become spies on David’s behalf (2 Sam 15:24-29,35; 19:11). At the time of Adonijah’s rebellion, however, the two took different sides, Abiathar supporting Adonijah, and Zadok supporting Solomon. Upon becoming king, Solomon promoted Zadok to chief priest, but sent Abiathar into exile (1 Kings 1:5-8,43-45; 2:26,35).

ABIGAIL

Two women named Abigail are mentioned in the Bible (1 Sam 25:3; 2 Sam 17:25). The better known of the two is the wife of the foolish farmer, Nabal. Nabal almost brought disaster upon his household by his insulting refusal to supply David and his men with food in return for their service in protecting his farmlands against the raiding Philistines. Only quick thinking and wise words from Abigail saved the situation (1 Sam 25:2-35). When Nabal unexpectedly died, David married Abigail (1 Sam 25:39-42). She became the mother of David’s second son, Chileab (2 Sam 3:3).

ABIJAH (ABIJAM)

The Judean king Abijah (or Abijam) was one of several people of that name in the Bible. He was the second king of Judah after the division of the kingdom, and reigned from 913 to 910 BC (1 Kings 15:1-2). Abijah was not wholly loyal to Yahweh, for he tolerated false religion in Judah (1 Kings 15:3). However, he was not as bad as his contemporary in Israel, Jeroboam, who had set up an official rival religion in the northern kingdom. When Abijah went to war with Jeroboam, he presumed God would give him victory because his kingdom was based on the Davidic dynasty and the Levitical priesthood (2 Chron 13:1-12). He did, in fact, defeat Jeroboam, not because God was in any way obliged to help him, but because his soldiers fought in an attitude of genuine reliance on God (2 Chron 13:13-22).

ABIMELECH

It seems that ‘Abimelech’ was used both as a royal title (among the Philistines) and as a personal name (among the Israelites). The meaning of the word was ‘father-king’. The Bible mentions three Philistine rulers by this name and one notorious Israelite.

Among the Philistines After the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Abraham and Sarah moved through the south of Canaan and settled in the Philistine district of Gerar. Abraham, fearing that the Philistine king Abimelech might kill him in order to take Sarah for his own wife, preserved his life by saying that Sarah was his sister (Gen 20:1-2,13; cf. 12:11-13). Abimelech did indeed take Sarah, but before he had any sexual
relation with her, God warned him that she was Abraham’s wife (Gen 20:3-7). Abimelech avoided God’s judgment by giving Sarah back to Abraham, along with compensation for the damage he had done to Sarah’s honour (Gen 20:8-18). Abraham remained in the region by Abimelech’s permission (Gen 20:15), but his increasing prosperity made Abimelech wary. At Abimelech’s suggestion, the two men made a treaty to ensure peaceful cooperation; but before entering the treaty, Abraham insisted that Abimelech’s herdsmen return to him a well they had seized. The arrangement was sealed by Abimelech’s acceptance of a gift from Abraham (Gen 21:22-32). Eighty or so years later, when Abraham’s son Isaac settled for a time in Gerar, he created tension with a later Abimelech through the same sort of deceit as Abraham’s (Gen 26:1,7-11). In spite of opposition from Abimelech’s men in repeatedly denying Isaac water, Isaac continued to prosper (Gen 26:17-22). This made Abimelech fear him, and on Abimelech’s suggestion the two men renewed the treaty between the former Abimelech and Abraham (Gen 26:26 -32). The other Philistine ruler whom the Bible calls Abimelech was Achish, ruler of the city of Gath (see Introduction to Psalm 34). David, in fleeing from Saul, had looked for safety in Gath, but when Achish was warned that David could be an Israelite spy, he decided to kill him. When David acted as a madman, Achish was easily deceived and drove him out of the city (1 Sam 21:10-15).

Among the Israelites During the period of the judges, an ambitious Israelite named Abimelech was the cause of much unnecessary bloodshed. He was one of Gideon’s seventy sons, and his mother was a Shechemite. Upon Gideon’s death, Abimelech killed all his brothers (except one who escaped) and established himself ‘king’ in Shechem (Judg 9:1-6). When, after three years, the Shechemites plotted to assassinate him, Abimelech discovered the plot and slaughtered the plotters (Judg 9:22-41). With his pride hurt, Abimelech was now driven on in senseless fury. He massacred the innocent citizens of Shechem, along with those of another town whom he thought might have been opposed to him. But his blind rage led to a lack of caution, and this in turn brought about his death (Judg 9:42-56).

ABISHAG

When David was old and sick, the nurse chosen to be with him constantly was Abishag. One of her duties was to lie with him in bed to give him warmth. Although she was not a concubine, some people apparently thought she was (1 Kings 1:1-4). After David’s death, his son Adonijah asked the new king Solomon for Abishag as a wife. Since a new king inherited the concubines of the former king (cf. 2 Sam 3:7-10; 12:7-8; 16:22), Solomon considered Adonijah’s request to be an attempt to gain David’s throne. He therefore executed Adonijah for treason (1 Kings 2:13-25)

ABISHAI

With his brothers Joab and Asahel, Abishai joined David during David’s flight from Saul. The brothers, though related to David and strong supporters of him, were a constant worry to David because of their hotheadedness. Abishai seems to have been the most violent of the three (1 Sam 26:6-9; 2 Sam 2:18-24; 3:30,39; 16:9-10; 19:21-22; 21:16-17). He became one of the highest ranked officers in David’s army, being commander of that group of ‘mighty men’ known as The Thirty (2 Sam 23:18-19). In battle he commanded large divisions of the fighting forces (2 Sam 10:9-10; 18:2).

ABNER

When Saul, the first king of Israel, established his administration, he appointed his cousin Abner as commander-in-chief of his army (1 Sam 14:50-51). Abner first met David on the occasion of Goliath’s defeat (1 Sam 17:55-57). David served under Abner as a loyal officer (1 Sam 18:5), but later Abner led Saul’s troops in trying to capture the fleeing, yet innocent, David (1 Sam 26:5,14-15). After Saul’s death, Abner appointed Saul’s son Ishbosheth as king in opposition to David (2 Sam 2:8). Although Abner was a strong leader, his troops were not as good as David’s and they steadily lost ground over the next two years (2 Sam 3:1,6). Meanwhile Ishbosheth became increasingly jealous of Abner, who was the real power supporting him. When Ishbosheth accused Abner of wanting the throne for himself, Abner deserted Ishbosheth and joined David (2 Sam 3:7-11).

Abner then set to work to win allegiance to David from all the previous supporters of Ishbosheth (2 Sam 3:17-21). But he was treacherously murdered by David’s commander Joab, in retaliation for Abner’s earlier killing of Joab’s brother in battle (2 Sam 3:24-30; cf. 2:12-23). Without the leadership of Abner, Ishbosheth’s ‘kingdom’ quickly collapsed (2 Sam 4:1-5:1).

ABRAHAM

Originally called Abram, Abraham received his new name from God in confirmation of God’s promise that he would be father of a multitude of people (Gen 17:5-7). In fulfilment of this promise, Abraham became the physical father of the Israelite nation (Matt 3:9; John 8:37). Because he accepted God’s promise by faith, he is also the spiritual father of all who accept God’s promises by faith, regardless of their nationality. As God in his grace declared Abraham righteous, so he declares righteous all who trust in him (Gen 15:6; Rom 4:11).

Response to God Abraham was brought up in Mesopotamia, and the people among whom he lived were idol worshippers (Gen 11:28-31; Josh 24:2). But he worshipped the one true God (Gen 14:22; 18:25; 21:33). Abraham gave proof of his faith by obeying God when God told him to move out from his family group to a new land to which God would direct him (about 1925 BC; Gen 12:1,4; Neh 9:7; Acts 7:2-4; Heb 11:8-10). God’s purpose in choosing Abraham was to produce through him a nation (Israel; 2 Cor 11:22), to give that nation a land to dwell in (Canaan; Gen 12:5-7), and to bring from that nation one man (Jesus Christ; Rom 9:4-5) who would be saviour of the world. Through Abraham, people of all nations would receive the life-giving blessing that God had prepared for the world (Gen 12:1-3; Gal 3:14,29). At the time of their migration to Canaan, Abraham and his wife Sarah (originally Sarai) had no children. Abraham was at that time seventy-five years of age. He and Sarah were accompanied by Abraham’s nephew, Lot, and a large household of labourers whom Abraham needed to look after his flocks, herds and working animals (Gen 12:4,16; 14:14). A drought in Canaan convinced Abraham that he should look for better pastures in Egypt. But the Egyptian ruler found him deceitful, and Abraham was forced to leave Egypt in disgrace (Gen 12:10,20; 13:1). Nevertheless, Abraham and Lot continued to prosper. In fact, they became so wealthy that when they returned to Canaan, they had to settle in different parts of the land to prevent trouble between their households (Gen 13:1-2,6). Lot settled in the fertile region east of the Dead Sea (Gen 13:10-11). Abraham settled in the centre of Canaan, and received God’s reassuring promise that one day his descendants would possess Canaan as their national homeland (Gen 13:14-18). Later he rescued Lot from an invading army of Mesopotamians. He demonstrated his belief that God alone controlled Canaan’s affairs, when he made a sacrificial offering to God’s priest (Melchizedek) and refused to accept any reward from the Canaanite rulers (Gen 14:1-24; cf. Heb 7:1-2,4,6).

God’s covenant

God’s promise to Abraham (namely, that he would be the father of a great nation) originated entirely in the sovereign will of God. God chose Abraham, Abraham believed God’s promise, and in response
God accepted Abraham as righteous (Gen 15:6). In confirmation of his promise, God told Abraham to prepare a covenant ceremony where normally the two parties to the covenant would pass between the parts of slaughtered animals. In this case, however, only God (symbolized by a smoking fire-pot and a flaming torch) passed between the animals, showing again that God alone took responsibility to fulfil the covenant promises. All that Abraham had to do was believe (Gen 15:7-10,17-21). After ten years in Canaan, Sarah and Abraham had not been able to produce a son. Sarah therefore suggested that Abraham obtain his son through their slave-girl, Hagar (Gen 16:1-3). But the son born of this relationship was not the one God had promised. Abraham’s promised heir would come through his wife Sarah. It was at this time that God gave the names ‘Abraham’ and ‘Sarah’. The new names emphasized that they would yet be the parents of a multitude of people (Gen 17:1-7,15-19). In further confirmation of his covenant with Abraham, God commanded Abraham and all future male descendants to make a permanent mark in their bodies. This mark, circumcision, was both a symbol of God’s faithfulness to his covenant and a sign that Abraham believed God’s promises and acted upon them. Circumcision sealed Abraham’s faith and demonstrated his obedience (Gen 17:9-11; 17:23; Rom 4:9-12; Acts 7:8; see CIRCUMCISION; COVENANT). Sarah found it difficult to believe that she would yet have a child. God had just reassured Abraham (Gen 17:17-19), and now he sent heavenly messengers to reassure Sarah (Gen 18:9-14). The same messengers told Abraham that judgment was about to fall on the wicked cities of the region where Lot lived (Gen 18:16-21). Abraham hoped that God might spare the cities, but he did not realize how bad they were. The cities were destroyed, though Lot escaped (Gen 18:32; 19:29).

Abraham’s heir

Upon moving with his flocks and herds into the Philistine region, Abraham again brought disgrace upon himself when he deceived the ruler in whose territory he dwelt (Gen 20:1-3). This failure of Abraham, particularly at a time so close to the birth of the promised son, showed again that God’s blessing upon Abraham depended entirely upon divine grace, not upon human good works (Rom 4:1-5). The promised heir, Isaac, was born to Abraham and Sarah when Abraham was about one hundred years old. Abraham had accepted God’s promise by faith, in spite of the apparent impossibility of such an old couple producing children. God was faithful to his promise (Gen 21:2-3; Rom 4:17-21). An even greater test of faith came when God told Abraham to offer his son as a human sacrifice. If Isaac was killed, God could no longer fulfil his promise of a multitude of descendants for Abraham through Isaac. Yet Abraham obeyed, believing that God could bring Isaac back to life (Gen 22:1-2; Heb 11:17-19). Abraham’s obedience proved the genuineness of his faith. Though he offered Isaac, he did not kill him. God provided a substitute, and Isaac’s life was given back, as it were, from the dead (Gen 22:13; Heb 11:19; James 2:21-24). When Sarah died, Abraham bought a piece of ground within Canaan as a burial place for her. In doing so he showed once more his faith in the ultimate fulfilment of God’s promise concerning his descendants’ permanent homeland. He now legally owned part of the territory which they would one day possess (Gen 23:1-4,16-20; cf. 49:29-33). Since Isaac was to succeed Abraham as heir to Canaan and ancestor of the promised nation, Abraham required Isaac to remain in Canaan but not to marry one of the Canaanite women. He therefore sent his chief servant north to find a wife for Isaac among Abraham’s relatives (Gen 24:3-6). The Genesis account of Abraham concludes with the note that he had other descendants through minor wives, but these were not part of the promised nation (Gen 25:1-6). One hundred years after first moving to the promised land, Abraham died (Gen 25:7). He was buried in the burial ground with Sarah, as a final demonstration of his faith in God’s promises (Gen 25:8-10).

Example of faith

Repeatedly, the New Testament refers to Abraham as an example of the truth that God accepts people and declares them righteous on the basis of faith. The Jews had to learn that physical descent from Abraham was no guarantee of salvation (Matt 3:9; John 8:39-44; Rom 9:7). The case of Abraham shows clearly that salvation has nothing to do with personal good works (Rom 4:1-5), religious rituals (Rom 4:9
12) or the law of Moses (Rom 4:13; Gal 3:16-18). It is entirely dependent upon God’s grace and is received by faith (Rom 4:16). The promises given to Abraham find their ultimate fulfilment in Jesus Christ, through whom people of all nations are saved (Luke 1:72-73; Gal 3:8,14,16). When believers become Christ’s people, they become, through him, Abraham’s descendants also, and so share in the blessings promised to Abraham (Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:9,29; Eph 3:6). Abraham’s faith is a further example in that it is not only a faith that saves, but also a faith that the true believer lives by. Abraham’s offering of Isaac showed that faith proves its genuineness by obedience (Heb 11:17-19; James 2:21-23). Always Abraham looked beyond his immediate circumstances, believing that God would give him a better and more lasting dwelling place (Acts 7:5; Heb 11:8-10,13-16).

ABSALOM

Absalom, the third son of David, first features in the Bible story when his sister Tamar was raped by Amnon, their older brother by a different mother (2 Sam 3:2-3; 13:1-22). Absalom was determined to have his revenge, no matter how long he had to wait. After two full years he found a suitable opportunity, and had Amnon murdered. He then fled into exile (2 Sam 13:23-27). After three years without a recognized heir to David in Jerusalem, David’s army commander Joab was worried about the stability of David’s dynasty. He therefore worked out a cunning plan to re-establish Absalom in Jerusalem, without the necessity for Absalom to face trial for murder (2 Sam 13:38; 14:1-24).

Although Absalom returned from exile, David refused to receive him into the palace. But after two years Absalom forced his way in (2 Sam 14:28-33). Over the next four years Absalom built up a following for himself among the country people, particularly those from the south (2 Sam 15:1-7). He then launched a surprise attack, seizing the throne and forcing David to flee for his life (2 Sam 15:8-18; 16:20-23). But one of David’s chief advisers stayed behind as a spy in Absalom’s court. By appealing to Absalom’s vanity, he was able to persuade Absalom to ignore the wise words of Absalom’s chief adviser (2 Sam 15:32-37; 17:1-14). As a result Absalom decided to glorify himself in a full-scale battle with David’s army. His troops were no match for David’s hardened soldiers, and he himself was killed (2 Sam 18:1-15)

ACHAIA

In the days of the Roman Empire, Achaia was the southern of two Greek provinces, the other being Macedonia (Acts 19:21; Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 9:2; 1 Thess 1:8). Formerly, in the days of the Greek Empire, Macedonia was the centre of Greek power, but under the Romans the political situation had changed and the name Achaia was usually identified with Greece (Acts 18:27; 20:2; see GREECE). The administrative centre of Achaia was Corinth, and the educational centre, Athens (Acts 17:21; 18:1,12; 2 Cor 1:1).

A church was founded in Corinth during Paul’s second missionary journey, and another at the port of Cenchreae nearby (Acts 18:1-18; Rom 16:1; 1 Cor 16:15; see CORINTH). There were also Christians in Athens (Acts 17:34; see ATHENS). Paul revisited the area during his third missionary journey (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3), when he collected money that the churches of Achaia, like other churches, had put aside to help the poor Christians in Judea (Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 9:1-2). Some years later, Paul planned to spend a winter at Nicopolis, on Achaia’s west coast, but the Bible does not record whether he was able to fulfil his plans (Titus 3:12).

ADAM

The name ‘Adam’, which is the name of the first human, is also the common Hebrew word for ‘man’, both man the individual and the human race as a whole. The root of the word appears originally to have meant ‘red’, and is the same as that for ‘red soil’. The two words are used together in the sentence, ‘The Lord God formed man (adam) of dust from the ground (adamah)’ (Gen 2:7). Adam represented the climax of God’s creation. He shared his physical origin with other animals in being made of common earthly chemicals, yet he was uniquely different in that he was made in the image of God (Gen 1:27; 2:7; see CREATION; HUMANITY, HUMANKIND). God gave Adam a wife, Eve, who shared his unique nature (Gen 2:21-23), and this nature has passed on to the human race that has descended from them (1 Cor 15:45-49).

God placed Adam and Eve in a beautiful parkland for their time of testing and training. There they had opportunity to develop in body, mind and spirit, through doing physical work, making choices, learning skills, relating to each other and living in fellowship with God (Gen 2:15-23). But instead of submitting to God, Adam attempted to live independently of God and so fell into sin (Gen 3:1-7). In so doing he brought judgment upon himself and upon the whole human race which, in effect, existed in him (Gen 3:14-19; Rom 5:12; see DEATH; SIN). Only Jesus Christ can undo the damage that Adam has caused. Through his death, he becomes head of a new race of people, those saved by God’s super-abundant grace (Rom 5:14-19). As Adam was the first of a race of people fitted for the physical life of the present age, so Jesus Christ is the first of a race of people fitted for the spiritual life of the age to come. As all who are in physical union with Adam share the deathly consequences of Adam’s sin, so all who are in spiritual union with Christ share the resurrection life that Christ has made possible (1 Cor 15:21-22,45-49; see also IMAGE).

Adam lived 930 years, during which he fathered many sons and daughters (Gen 5:1-5; cf. 1:28). The most well known of these were Cain, his firstborn; Abel, whom Cain murdered; and Seth, whom Adam and Eve considered a special gift from God to replace Abel (Gen 4:1-8,25).

ADONIJAH

During what appeared to be the last days of the aged king David, his son Adonijah decided to establish himself as king before David died. He was the eldest of David’s surviving sons (cf. 2 Sam 3:24), and had the support of the army commander Joab and the senior priest Abiathar (1 Kings 1:5-7). But God had showed David that Solomon was to succeed him (1 Chron 28:5), and Solomon had the support of the commander of the royal bodyguard Benaiah, the other leading priest Zadok, and the prophet Nathan (1 Kings 1:8). As a result of swift action by Nathan, David promptly declared Solomon to be king. The ambitious Adonijah could do nothing but cry to Solomon for mercy (1 Kings 1:6-53). Soon after David’s death, however, Solomon executed Adonijah for treason. He considered Adonijah’s request for Abishag as wife was a claim to David’s concubines, and therefore a claim to David’s throne (1 Kings 2:13-25; see ABISHAG).

ADOPTION

A number of different words are used in the Bible to picture God’s gracious act of saving repentant sinners and giving them a new and living relationship with him. For example, it is an act of regeneration (new birth), for it gives spiritual life to those who are dead in sins (see REGENERATION). It is an act of justification, for it makes sinners right with God on account of Christ’s atoning death on their behalf (see JUSTIFICATION). It is also an act of adoption, for it makes believers children of God.

New status

The picture of adoption comes from a practice that was well known to people of Bible times. If a wealthy man had no descendants, he could carefully choose some trustworthy person to be his son. This adopted person then had the status of a responsible adult son, who would become the next head of the family, receive the family inheritance and carry on the family name (Gen 15:2-3). When the Bible uses adoption as a picture of what God has done, the emphasis is on the status and dignity he places on those whom he brings into this close relationship with himself. Old Testament Israel is a good example of this gracious act of God; for he chose Israel from among all the peoples of the world and made the nation his son (Exod 4:22; Deut 14:1; Hosea 11:1; Rom 9:4).

Christians as God’s sons

The New Testament develops the idea of adoption more fully, showing that God makes repentant sinners his sons. He brings them into such a close relationship with himself that they can speak to him as sons to a Father (Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6). There is no conflict between the pictures of new birth and adoption. New birth shows that God gives life to those who are spiritually dead; adoption shows that God makes believers his special possession and gives them the full status of mature adult sons (Rom 8:15; Gal 3:23-26; 4:1-7; Eph 1:5; 1 John 3:1). This is possible only through the death of Jesus Christ, and it is true only of those who have faith in him (Gal 3:26; 4:4-5).
As sons of God, believers enjoy the spiritual privilege of access to God (Rom 8:15-16) and inherit here and now his spiritual blessings (Rom 8:17; Gal 4:7). They can look forward to the full and unhindered enjoyment of these blessings at the return of Jesus Christ (Rom 8:23; 1 John 3:2). (See also FATHER.)

ADULTERY

The teaching of the Bible is that sexual relations are lawful only between husband and wife. A sexual relation between two people who are not married is usually called fornication; a sexual relation between a married person and someone other than that person’s marriage partner is usually called adultery (Exod 20:14; Rom 12:9,20; Gal 5:19; 1 Thess 4:3-4; see also FORNICATION).

Old Testament regulations

According to the law of Moses, the punishment for adultery was death by stoning (Lev 20:10; John 8:3-5). Where there was a suspicion of adultery but no clear evidence, Israelite law set out a special procedure by which a priest could determine the case (Num 5:11-31). The engaged as well as the married were considered adulterers if they had sexual relations with third parties. Again the penalty was death. The one exception was the case of a woman who had been raped (Deut 22:22-27). Adultery was a sin against one’s own marriage partner (Mal 2:11,14; cf. Hosea 2:2), as well as against the marriage partner of the new lover (Exod 20:14,17; 2 Sam 12:9; Prov 6:32-35). Unfaithfulness was at the centre of all adultery. The Old Testament prophets repeatedly spoke of Israel’s unfaithfulness to God as spiritual adultery, or spiritual prostitution (Jer 5:7; 23:10; Ezek 16:30-38; 23:4-5,11; Hosea 9:1; see PROSTITUTION).

New Testament teachings

Like the Old Testament, the New Testament looks upon marriage as a permanent union. Therefore, the person who divorced and remarried was considered guilty of adultery (Mark 10:2-12; Luke 16:18; Rom 7:2-4). The exception that Jesus allowed concerned the case where persistent adulterous behaviour by one partner had already virtually destroyed the marriage (Matt 5:32; 19:7-9; see also DIVORCE). Jesus said that even the desire to have unlawful sexual relations was a form of adultery. Therefore, the best way to avoid adulterous acts was to avoid adulterous thoughts (Matt 5:27-30; 15:19; cf. Exod 20:17; James 1:14-15). Paul pointed out that Christians in particular should avoid all immoral sexual relations, since their bodies are indwelt by the Holy Spirit and they themselves belong to Christ. For the Christian, there is a sense in which sexual sin is spiritual prostitution (1 Cor 6:13-20). Although the New Testament announces God’s judgment on those who are immoral and adulterous (Heb 13:4; 2 Peter 2:14), it also shows that God is ready to forgive those who, in sorrow for their sin, turn to him for mercy (1 Cor 6:9-11).

Jesus rebuked the self-righteous who condemned adulterers but who could not see their own sin. At the same time he gave sympathetic support to those who acknowledged their sin and repented of it (Matt 9:11-13; Luke 18:9-14; John 8:3-11; cf. Rom 2:22). Christians may rightly condemn adultery, but, remembering their own weaknesses, they should also forgive those who repent of their adultery. More than that, they should give them understanding and support as they try to re-establish their lives (2 Cor 2:7; Gal 6:1-2; Eph 1:7; 4:32).

ADVOCATE

The word sometimes translated in the Bible as ‘advocate’ denoted a person who came and stood beside someone to help in a time of need. People today usually think of an advocate as one who pleads on behalf of another in a court of law, but only occasionally does the Bible use the word in this legal sense (e.g. 1 John 2:1). In most cases it uses the word in the broader sense of a counsellor or helper (e.g. John 14:26). Jesus had been a counsellor or helper to his followers while he was with them, and promised that when he left them and returned to his Father, he would send them another counsellor, the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit would dwell with Jesus’ followers, giving them the sort of teaching, guidance and help that Jesus had given them (John 14:16-17; 14:26; 15:26; 16:7; cf. Matt 10:19-20; Rom 8:26). (For further details see HOLY SPIRIT.) While the Holy Spirit is within believers on earth, Jesus Christ appears before the Father as their advocate in heaven. Christians need this advocate because of the difficulties they face in a sinful world. Inevitably they will sometimes sin and as a result need God’s forgiveness.

Their sin does not cause them to lose their salvation, but it spoils their fellowship with God. In Jesus they have a heavenly advocate who, when they confess their sin, brings their case before the merciful God and asks his forgiveness. Just as Jesus’ death and resurrection was the basis on which God accepted them as his people in the first place, so it is the basis on which God continues to forgive their failures (Rom 8:34; 1 John 1:9; 2:1-2). Another picture of the risen Christ’s work on behalf of his people is that of high priesthood. In this picture Jesus’ work is similar to that of an advocate. He is his people’s great high priest, who understands their needs and appears in the presence of God to plead for them (Heb 7:25; 9:24). (For further details see PRIEST, sub-heading ‘The high priesthood of Jesus’.)

AFRICA

By far the most frequent mention of Africa in the Bible has to do with Egypt (see EGYPT; GOSHEN; NILE). The land of Ethiopia is also mentioned frequently, sometimes under the name of Cush (see ETHIOPIA). Other African nations mentioned in the Bible are Libya (2 Chron 12:3; 16:8; Dan 11:43), Put (Jer 46:9; Ezek 30:5; 38:5; Nahum 3:9), and Lud (Jer 46:9; Ezek 30:5). (For additional New Testament references to Africa see ALEXANDRIA; CYRENE.).

AGRICULTURE

See FARMING.

AHAB

Ahab reigned over the kingdom of Israel (the northern part of the divided Israelite state) from about 874 to 852 BC. Before coming to Israel’s throne, he had married Jezebel, daughter of the king-priest of Phoenicia, in a political alliance that had disastrous consequences for Israel. Besides accepting the Baal worship that Jezebel brought with her from Phoenicia, Ahab gave it official status in Israel by building a Baal temple in his capital city (1 Kings 16:29-33). Israel’s longestablished practice of mixing the worship of God (Yahweh) with the worship of Baal was bad enough, but Jezebel’s intention was far worse. She wanted to remove the worship of God from Israel entirely and replace it with the worship of Baal.

The Baalism promoted by Ahab and Jezebel was a threat to Israel’s existence as God’s people, and for this reason God sent the prophets Elijah and Elisha to oppose it. (For details of this aspect of Ahab’s reign see BAAL; ELIJAH.) God used Elijah to tell Ahab of a drought that he was about to send as punishment on the ungodly kingdom (1 Kings 17:1). Three years later he used Elijah to announce the end of the drought, but that end came in such a way as should have convinced Ahab that he could not serve both God and Baal (1 Kings 18:1-2,17-18,21,41-46).

Ahab, however, continued to try to serve two gods. He allowed the queen to try to kill the prophet who opposed her Baalism (1 Kings 19:1-2), but at the same time he looked to another of God’s prophets for directions that would bring him military victory against Syria (1 Kings 20:13-14,22). Ahab won a decisive victory (1 Kings 20:20-21), and the next year won another victory, again at the direction of one of God’s prophets (1 Kings 20:22). The victories should have convinced Ahab that God’s power was not, like Baal’s, limited to only certain places (1 Kings 20:28). When Ahab agreed to spare the enemy kings because of trade advantages he could win for himself, another of God’s prophets condemned his actions (1 Kings 20:34-43). Not only were Ahab’s religious, military and trade policies contrary to God’s purposes, but his administration in general was full of injustice. This was clearly shown in the way he gained Naboth’s vineyard for himself. People could be easily bribed, local officials were corrupt, and no one upheld the law on behalf of ordinary citizens (1 Kings 21:1-16). The prophet Elijah announced a horrible judgment on Ahab, and particularly on his murderous wife Jezebel (1 Kings 21:17-26).

God’s judgment fell on Ahab in another battle with Syria. Most of the court prophets were corrupt, and gave Ahab whatever advice they thought would please him. The prophet Micaiah, by contrast, had consistently told Ahab the truth. When he told Ahab that the coming war would bring defeat, Ahab threw him into prison (1 Kings 22:1-28). Ahab ignored the message from God, and as a result met the dreadful death that Elijah had earlier announced (1 Kings 22:29-38). Ahab’s sons continued the evil of their father’s reign (1 Kings 22:51-53; 2 Kings 3:1-3). The dynasty came to a bloody end through a revolution led by the ruthless Jehu (2 Kings 9:7-10; 10:1-11,17).

AHASUERUS

Known also as Xerxes I, Ahasuerus ruled over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC. At that time the Jews had returned from exile and the temple in Jerusalem had been rebuilt (completed in 516 BC). The completion of the city walls, however, awaited the governorship of Nehemiah (who arrived in Jerusalem in 445 BC). Ahasuerus is therefore not involved in the events narrated in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, though he is referred to in Ezra 4:6. He is the king who features in the story of Esther. (For further details see ESTHER; PERSIA.)

AHAZ

Politically and religiously, Ahaz’s reign over Judah was disastrous. He came to the throne about 735 BC, when Assyria was rapidly expanding its power and becoming a threat to all the countries of the region. To resist the Assyrian threat, Israel and Syria asked Judah to join them in a three-part defence alliance. When Ahaz refused, Israel and Syria attacked Jerusalem, planning to put a king of their own choice on Judah’s throne. Ahaz panicked and, against the advice of Isaiah the prophet, asked Assyria to help defend him. Isaiah promised that faith in God, and nothing else, would bring lasting victory. In the short term, Assyrian help might save Jerusalem, but in the long term it would bring Judah under the power of Assyria (2 Kings 16:5,7-9; Isa 7:1-9; 8:5-8).

(Concerning God’s sign of assurance given to Ahaz in Isaiah 7:10-25, see IMMANUEL; VIRGIN.) Ahaz’s policies during the war with Israel-Syria almost ruined Judah’s national economy. His hiring of Assyria was costly (2 Kings 16:7-8,17-18; 2 Chron 28:20-21), and though it enabled him to repel the Israelite-Syrian army, he lost thousands of soldiers killed in the battle (2 Chron 28:5-7). He almost lost thousands more as prisoners, but a prophet told the Israelites to send all the prisoners, and all the loot, back to Judah (2 Chron 28:8-15). Ahaz suffered further losses at the hands of invading Edomites and Philistines, and lost control of the important Red Sea port of Elath (Ezion-geber) (2 Kings 16:6; 2 Chron 28:17-18). In addition to damaging Judah’s political and economic standing, Ahaz corrupted Judah’s religion.

He worshipped the gods of the foreigners who had shown such strength in battle, and introduced their religion into Judah. He built a copy of their altar of sacrifice to replace the existing altar of sacrifice in the Jerusalem temple (2 Kings 16:10-16; 2 Chron 28:22-24), and built shrines for the foreign religions throughout the towns of Judah (2 Chron 28:25). He even burnt his son as a human sacrifice (2 Kings 16:2-4). Ahaz did such harm to Judah’s national life, that the nation’s leaders refused to give him a burial place among the royal tombs (2 Chron 28:27). His son and successor Hezekiah soon began a vigorous reformation of Judah (2 Kings 18:1-6).

AHAZIAH

Israel and Judah, the northern and southern parts of the divided Israelite kingdom, each had a king named Ahaziah. Ahaziah of Israel was the son of Ahab and Jezebel, and during his brief two-year reign (853-852 BC) he continued to promote his parents’ Baal worship (1 Kings 22:51-53). When the godly King Jehoshaphat of Judah cooperated with the ungodly Ahaziah in establishing a shipping fleet, God wrecked the ships. It impressed upon Jehoshaphat that God did not want him to have any close association with Ahaziah (2 Chron 20:35-37). After an accident, Ahaziah sought help from Baal gods, but Elijah stopped him. Ahaziah then plotted to kill Elijah, but his plans ended in his own death (2 Kings 1:116).

After Ahaziah’s death, his brother Jehoram (or Joram) became king of Israel (2 Kings 1:17). Their sister Athaliah had married the Judean king (Jehoshaphat’s son), whose name also was Jehoram. Through the Judean Jehoram and his wife Athaliah, the Baalism of Ahab and Jezebel spread to Judah. When Jehoram of Judah died, his son Ahaziah came to the throne (840 BC; 2 Chron 21:1,5-6; 22:1-2). Being very much under the influence of his mother, Ahaziah promoted Baal worship in Judah (2 Chron 22:3-4). However, he was killed after reigning only one year (2 Chron 22:2). He had gone to visit his uncle, Jehoram of Israel, who had been wounded in battle, and got caught in Jehu’s anti-Baal revolution (2 Chron 22:5-9; cf. 2 Kings 9:16-28).

AHIJAH

Ahijah the prophet is the most important of several people of that name in the Bible. He features in two incidents. The first was when he told Jeroboam that God would divide Solomon’s kingdom and give ten of the twelve tribes to Jeroboam (1 Kings 11:28-38; see JEROBOAM). The promise was fulfilled with the division of the kingdom in 930 BC (1 Kings 12:15). Jeroboam, however, ignored Ahijah’s command to walk in the ways of God (1 Kings 11:38), and this resulted in the second incident involving Ahijah. Jeroboam wanted Ahijah’s help, but, knowing that Ahijah was angry with him, he sent his wife disguised as someone else (1 Kings 14:1-5). Ahijah was aware of Jeroboam’s trick, and announced that he would not escape God’s judgment. He had rebelled against God, and therefore his dynasty would be destroyed (1 Kings 14:6-16). Again the words of the prophet came true (1 Kings 14:17-18; 15:29)

ALEXANDRIA

After his conquest in 333 BC, Alexander the Great of Greece built the city of Alexandria as a Mediterranean sea port for Egypt and named it after himself. It soon became the greatest Greek city of the time, and was famed for its architectural magnificence. It was the capital of Egypt during the Greek and Roman Empires, and was a busy centre of commercial and manufacturing activity. From here the famous grain ships of Alexandria carried Egypt’s corn to Greece and Rome (Acts 27:6; 28:11). The population of the city was a mixture of Greek, Egyptian, Jewish and Roman people (Acts 6:9; 18:24). The city became a centre of learning, famous for its Greek philosophers and its Jewish Bible scholars.

Some non-canonical Jewish books of pre-Christian times were written in Alexandria (see CANON). More importantly, Alexandria was the place where seventy Jewish scholars prepared the first Greek translation of the Old Testament. This is known as the Septuagint (referred to in writing as LXX) and was widely used in New Testament times along with the Hebrew Old Testament (see SEPTUAGINT). A feature of the Alexandrian school of Jewish Old Testament scholars was that their interpretations were detailed, earnest, philosophical and often extravagant. They gained the reputation of being learned and eloquent speakers. In the New Testament there is a record of one of them, Apollos, whose knowledge of Old Testament references to the Messiah was extraordinary. His knowledge of certain Christian teachings was lacking, but he was willing to learn. He soon became a powerful Christian preacher (Acts 18:24-28; see APOLLOS).

ALTAR

From the time of Noah there are biblical records of people who erected altars, usually to commemorate special religious experiences that people had with God. Some stories record the offering of sacrifices on these altars (Gen 8:20; 12:7; 13:18; 22:9; 26:25; 33:20; 35:3; Exod 17:15). Even after the establishment of the tabernacle with its specially appointed bronze altar of sacrifice, Israelites at times erected altars to commemorate important events (Deut 27:5; Josh 8:30-31; 22:10; Judg 6:24-26; 2 Sam 24:18-25; 1 Kings 18:30). But these altars were not to be permanent or lavish. They were to consist simply of a mound of earth or a heap of loose stones, depending upon which material was available in the region. The altars were not to be so high that they required steps, in order to avoid any immodesty which might occur if a priest lifted up his robes while climbing the steps (Exod 20:24-26). In the tabernacle, and later the temple, there were two altars, one in the open courtyard and the other inside the sanctuary. The one in the tabernacle courtyard was called the altar of burnt offering, for it was the altar on which all the animal sacrifices were offered. In appearance it was like a large wooden box overlaid with a metal variously described as bronze, copper or brass.

It was five cubits square and three cubits high (a cubit being about forty-four centimetres or eighteen inches). This ‘box’ may have been filled with rocks and dirt to form a mound on which the sacrifices were burnt. Alternatively, the sacrifices may have been burnt on a grid inside the box. Extending halfway up the altar on the outside was a grating that supported a ledge. This may have had some use during the offering of the sacrifices (Exod 27:1-8). The altar inside the sanctuary was positioned in the Holy Place against the veil, and was only for the offering of incense. It was much smaller than the altar of burnt offering, being only one cubit square and two cubits high.

It too was made of wood, but its overlaying metal was gold, befitting the splendour of the shrine in which it was placed (Exod 30:1-10; see also INCENSE; TABERNACLE). Both the altar of burnt offering and the altar of incense had horn-shaped projections at their corners. The Bible does not explain the practical or symbolic significance of the horns, but blood was sprinkled on them in certain rituals (Exod 27:2; 29:10-12; 30:2; Lev 4:4-7; see HORN). The altars were also fitted with carrying poles, for they were taken with the people on the journey to Canaan (Exod 27:6-7; 30:4-5). (Concerning altars of false religion see BAAL.) The Bible speaks of no literal altar for the Christian religion; only of the figurative ‘altar’ of Christ’s atoning death. Sacrificial altars and their accompanying festivals belong to the old Jewish religion and have no place in Christianity. When certain Jews in the early church were tempted to combine Christian faith with sacrificial rituals, the writer to the Hebrews told them that such a combination is impossible. If people continue to join in eating sacrifices offered on the Jewish altar, they cannot join in receiving benefits from the sacrifice offered on the Christian ‘altar’, which is the death of Christ (Heb 13:10; cf. 1 Cor 9:13; 10:18).

AMALEKITES

Although the descendants of Esau were, on the whole, known as Edomites, one group of Esau’s descendants developed separately and were known as the Amalekites (Gen 36:1,9,12; Exod 17:8; Judg 3:13; 1 Sam 15:2,15). They were a race of wild desert nomads who were scattered in an area extending from the far south of Canaan across the Sinai peninsular. When the Israelites were escaping from Egypt, the Amalekites raided the weak and defenceless who were lagging behind in the procession.

Because of this, God commanded that when the people of Israel were established in Canaan they were to wipe out the Amalekites (Exod 17:8-16; Deut 25:17-19). In the meantime the Amalekites continued to attack the Israelites, both before they entered Canaan and after they had settled there (Num 14:45; Judg 3:13; 6:3,33; 10:12). Saul was commanded to destroy them completely, but although he won a notable victory, he failed to carry out the task fully (1 Sam 15:133). Those who survived continued their bandit-like raids, but with less frequency and less effect. Gradually the Amalekites were absorbed into other groups in the region and eventually the race died out (1 Sam 30:1-20; 1 Chron 4:41-43).

AMAZIAH

After the murder of his father Joash, Amaziah became king of Judah (796 BC; 2 Kings 12:20-21; 14:1-5). Determined to regain control of Edom (cf. 2 Kings 8:20), he planned to hire soldiers from Israel to help him. On advice from a prophet, he changed his mind and sent the hired soldiers home.

He then fought the battle using Judean soldiers alone and won a great victory (2 Chron 25:5-13). Against the advice of a prophet, he took some of the idols he had captured from the Edomites and set them up as gods in his palace. In doing so he guaranteed his downfall (2 Chron 25:14-16). Swollen with arrogance and ambition, Amaziah then attacked Israel, in spite of being warned of the consequences.

His country was defeated and Jerusalem plundered (2 Chron 25:17-24). Later he was assassinated by some of his own people (2 Chron 25:25-28). Another Amaziah comes from the same general era. He was a priest who lived in Bethel during the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel. He opposed the preaching of the prophet Amos, and sent a message to the king accusing Amos of treason. When the king ignored the accusation, Amaziah tried to persuade Amos to return to Judah (Amos 7:10-13). Amos responded with an announcement of judgment on the false priest and his family (Amos 7:14-17).

AMEN

‘Amen’ is a transliteration from a Hebrew word meaning ‘surely, truly, certainly, trustworthily’. It was used as a formula expressing agreement to a variety of statements or announcements; for example, an oath (Num 5:19-22), a blessing or curse from God (Deut 27:11-26; Jer 11:5), an announcement (1 Kings 1:36), a prophecy (Jer 28:6), an expression of praise (1 Chron 16:36; Ps 41:13; Jude 24-25), a prayer (1 Cor 14:16), a statement (Rev 1:7) or a promise (Rev 22:20). Since the promises of God find their true fulfilment (their ‘yes’, their ‘amen’) in Jesus Christ, he may be called ‘the Amen’. He is what the Old Testament calls ‘the God of truth’, ‘the God of the amen’ (2 Cor 1:20; Rev 3:14; cf. Isa 65:16). Christians acknowledge this by adding their own ‘amen’ (2 Cor 1:20). Jesus, by introducing many of his statements with ‘Amen’ (i.e. ‘Verily’ or ‘Truly’), guaranteed that those statements were true, certain, reliable and authoritative (Matt 8:10; 10:15,23,42; 11:11; 13:17; etc.). (See also TRUTH.)

AMMON

In the tableland region east of the Jordan River were the sister nations of Ammon and Moab. They were descended from the two daughters of Lot, and therefore were related to Israel (Gen 19:36-38). The chief city of Ammon was Rabbah, or RabbathAmmon (now known as Amman, capital of the present-day nation of Jordan) (Deut 3:11; 2 Sam 12:26). The national god of Ammon was Molech, or Milcom (1 Kings 11:5,7; see MOLECH).

National history

Ammon was a well watered region to the east of the Jordan River, with a number of streams that flowed through deep gorges into the Jordan. The most important of these streams was the Jabbok. In the days before Israel’s migration to Canaan, the Ammonites were pushed further east, away from the Jordan, by the Amorites. The Amorites overran all the land bordering the Jordan, from Bashan in the north to the Dead Sea in the south. Israel in turn conquered the Amorites, took the land for itself and divided it among the tribes of Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh (Num 21:13,24-26,32-35; 32:1-5; Josh 13:8-12). God approved of the Israelites’ conquest of this territory, for they had taken it not from the Ammonites, who were related to them, but from the Amorites, who were under God’s judgment (Deut 2:17-19,37; 3:1-11; Judg 11:12-23; see AMORITES).

Therefore, when the Ammonites tried to repossess the area during the time of the judges, God used Jephthah to drive them out (Judg 10:6-9; 11:32-33). With the changes that accompanied Saul’s appointment as Israel’s first king, the Ammonites seized the opportunity to invade Israel’s eastern territory once more; but they were soon driven out (1 Sam 11:111). There were good relations between Ammon and Israel for much of David’s reign, but when a new Ammonite king became aggressive, David’s army drove the attackers back (2 Sam 10:1-14). When there was another attack the next year, David invaded Ammon, captured Rabbah, took control of the nation and forced the Ammonite people to work for Israel (2 Sam 11:1; 12:26-31). David’s successor, Solomon, took Ammonite women into his harem and worshipped the gods they brought with them (1 Kings 11:1,5,7,33). Solomon’s son and successor, Rehoboam, was half-Ammonite, being the son of one of Solomon’s Ammonite wives (1 Kings 14:21). Ammon had repeated conflicts with Israel and Judah over the next two hundred years (2 Chron 20:10-11; 26:8; 27:5).

When Assyria conquered Israel and took its people into captivity (722 BC), Ammon again took the opportunity to seize some of Israel’s eastern territory. But the Ammonites’ violence, cruelty and arrogance were inexcusable, and God’s prophets assured them of a fitting punishment (Jer 49:1-6; Amos 1:13-15; Zeph 2:8-11). The Ammonites also joined the attackers to help with the final destruction of Judah, but their treachery only made their own destruction more certain (2 Kings 24:1,2; Jer 40:13-14; 41:1-3,10; Ezek 25:1-7). As a result of conquests, first by Babylon and then by Persia, the nation of Ammon ceased to exist. Individual Ammonites continued to be a source of trouble to the Jews (Neh 2:10; 4:7-9), but eventually the separate racial identity of the Ammonites disappeared.

AMORITES

There is some uncertainty concerning the identity of the Amorites mentioned in the Bible, for the name ‘Amorite’ had a variety of usages in early Bible times. Non-biblical records suggest that the word meant ‘westerner’ and referred to the early Semitic peoples who migrated to ancient Babylonia from Western Mesopotamia and Syria. They conquered the formerly powerful kingdom of Ur, and soon spread their rule throughout Lower, Upper and Western Mesopotamia. Later these Amorites migrated down into Palestine, and were well established in certain areas by the time Abraham arrived (Gen 14:7,13).

They intermarried so widely with the original Canaanites that it became common practice to use the words ‘Canaanite’ and ‘Amorite’ interchangeably as names for the whole mixed population of Canaan (Gen 15:16; Josh 24:15,18). This intermarriage may explain why the biblical records indicate that the Amorites were descended from Ham, whereas non-biblical records suggest they were descended from Shem (Semites). Because most of the original Canaanites were descendants of Ham, the Amorites who later became Canaanites could regard both Ham and Shem as their ancestors (Gen 10:1,6,15-16). Nevertheless, some Amorite tribal groups in Canaan maintained their distinct identity, as did other tribal groups (Exod 3:8; 13:5; 23:23; Josh 9:1; 12:8).

Israel and the Amorites

Prior to Israel’s migration from Egypt to Canaan, the Amorite king Sihon had conquered all the Ammonite and Moabite territory east of the Jordan River as far south as the Arnon River. He made the former Moabite town Heshbon his capital (Num 21:26). When Sihon went to war against the journeying Israelites, the Israelites overthrew his army and seized his territory (Num 21:21-25). They also seized the adjoining northern territory of Bashan, which was ruled by another Amorite king (Num 21:33-35). This combined Amorite territory east of Jordan later became the homeland of the Israelite tribes of Reuben, Gad and the eastern half of Manasseh (Num 32:33). Amorite kings west of Jordan (i.e. in Canaan) likewise lost their territory to the conquering Israelites (Josh 5:1; 10:5; 11:1-8). This area became the homeland of the remaining nine and a half Israelite tribes. At various times throughout their history, the Israelites obtained cheap labour by forcing the Amorites and other conquered peoples to work as slaves on government projects (Judg 1:35; 1 Kings 9:20-21). In time the Amorites were absorbed into Israel and so disappeared as a distinct race. But their name survived as a general term for all the former inhabitants of Canaan (1 Kings 21:26; 2 Kings 21:11; cf. Gen 15:16).

ANAK

Anak was a Canaanite whose descendants (called Anakim, plural of Anak) were giants. They lived in the south of Canaan in the hill country around Hebron. Because of the great size and fearsome appearance of the Anakim, the Israelites saw them as an obstacle to the conquest of Canaan. Only Joshua and Caleb believed Israel could conquer them (Num 13:22-33; Deut 9:2). Joshua and Caleb were, in fact, the ones who eventually led the attack on the Anakim. Most of the Anakim were slaughtered, the only ones who managed to escape being those who found refuge in the Philistine towns of Gaza, Gath and Ashdod (Josh 11:21-22; 14:6-15). Gath remained the home of giants for several centuries (1 Sam 17:4; 2 Sam 21:18-22).

ANATHEMA

See CURSE

ANCESTORS

God has clearly taught his people to respect their parents (Exod 20:12; Eph 6:1-3; 1 Tim 5:8), and this naturally results in a respectful remembrance of those parents after they have died (Gen 35:20; 2 Tim 1:5). But no superstition is involved. The living are not able to call upon their dead ancestors for help, nor are they able to give their dead ancestors help, whether by praying to them, praying for them, or presenting offerings on their behalf. Those who die are, by their death, cut off from the world of the living. They join all their ancestors in the world of the dead (Gen 15:15; Judg 2:10; 1 Kings 1:21; 14:31; cf. 2 Sam 12:22-23).

If, generation after generation, people instruct their children in the knowledge of God, later generations will benefit from the faith and example of their ancestors. They will know the God of their fathers (Deut 6:3-7; 27:3; Ps 78:2-4; Joel 1:2-3; Luke 1:55; Acts 3:13). On the other hand, the forefathers might leave behind a bad example and a worthless manner of life for their descendants (Ezra 9:7; 1 Peter 1:18). Yet this should never be used as an excuse for wrongdoing. People are responsible for their own actions, regardless of what their ancestors might have done (Ezek 2:3; 18:1-4,19-20).

Through their wrong behaviour, people of later generations can be a disgrace to the memory of their godly ancestors. Only through complete repentance can they be united with their believing forefathers as the true children of God (Mal 4:6; Luke 1:17; John 8:39-40,56). God’s faithfulness to believing ancestors should be an encouragement (Ps 22:4; Luke 1:72-73), his punishment on unbelievers a warning (Num 32:7-8; Zech 1:4-5). Although it is true that the sinful ways of one generation can have lasting bad effects on later generations (Exod 20:5; Acts 7:51-52), it is also true that the mercy of God is constantly available to those who submit to him (Exod 20:6). The clearest expression of this mercy is in Jesus Christ. Those of a former generation cannot help those of the present, but the living Christ can help all who call on him. To those who trust in him he gives the life that even physical death cannot destroy, eternal life (John 6:48-51,58).

ANDREW

Among those who responded to the preaching of John the Baptist was Andrew, a fisherman from Galilee. He was with John the Baptist in the region around the Jordan Valley when John introduced him to Jesus. Andrew quickly went and told his brother Peter that the Messiah of whom John had spoken had arrived, with the result that Peter soon met Jesus and believed (John 1:35-42). (For further details of Andrew’s family see PETER.) When Jesus later went to Galilee, the two brothers left their fishermen’s work to join him in his work (Matt 4:18-20). Later again, Jesus included both brothers in his chosen group of twelve apostles (Matt 10:2; Mark 13:3; Acts 1:13). Two further references to Andrew record how he brought other people to Jesus (John 6:8-9; 12:21-22).

ANGELS

Angels are God’s servants and messengers in the heavenly and spiritual realm, where they find true satisfaction in the unceasing worship and service of God. They were created before humans, they belong to a higher order than humans, and their number is countless (Ps 103:20; 148:2; Isa. 6:2-3; Dan 7:10; Luke 12:8-9; 15:10; Col 1:16; Heb 12:22; Rev 4:8; 5:11-12; 7:11).

Good and bad angels

At some time before the creation of humans, some of the angels, under the leadership of one who became known as Satan, rebelled against God and so fell from their original sinless state (2 Peter 2:4; Jude 6). As a result there are good angels and evil angels. Christ has angels and so has Satan (Job 4:18; Matt 25:31,41; Jude 9; Rev 12:7-9). Both good and bad angels are under God’s sovereign rule, the difference between them being that the good angels are obedient and the evil angels rebellious. Even the chief of the evil angels, Satan, is no more than a created being under the authority of God. Satan and the evil angels who follow him can do their evil work only within the limits that God allows (Job 1:12; 2:6; see SATAN). Because of the high position that angels have as God’s heavenly servants, the Bible speaks of them as holy ones, as stars, and even as sons of God. Again these expressions may apply to good angels and bad angels (Job 1:6; 2:1; 5:1; 15:15; 38:7; Ps 89:5,7; Rev 9:1; 12:3-4,9). (The remainder of this article will be concerned only with good angels. For further discussion on evil angels see DEMONS.)

Dealings with humankind

Angels have many functions in relation to humankind, but above all they are God’s messengers (Gen 19:1; 28:12; Exod 3:2; Num 22:22; Judg 2:1-4; 6:11; 2 Sam 24:16; 1 Kings 13:18; 19:5; Matt 1:20; 2:19; 13:41; 16:27; Luke 1:26-31; Acts 10:3-4; Gal 3:19; e.g. see GABRIEL). In many of the earlier Old Testament references, the angel (or messenger) of God appears to be almost the same as God himself. This is possibly because the angel is so closely identified with God as his messenger that when he speaks God speaks. The angel’s temporary physical appearance is God’s temporary physical appearance (cf. Gen 16:7-13; 21:17-18; 22:15-17; Exod 3:2-6). To the godly, an angel may be a guide (Gen 24:7,40; Exod 14:19; Acts 8:26; 27:23), a protector (Ps 34:7; 91:11; Dan 6:22; 10:13,21; Matt 18:10), a deliverer (Isa 63:9; Dan 3:28; Matt 26:53; Acts 5:19), an interpreter of visions (Dan 8:16; Zech 1:8-14; Rev 1:1; 22:6) and, in fact, a sympathetic helper in all circumstances (Mark 1:13; Luke 22:43; Heb 1:13-14). Yet to the ungodly, angels may be God’s messengers of judgment (Matt 13:39,41; 25:31-32; Acts 12:23; 2 Thess 1:7-8). There are various categories of angels (Gen 3:24; Isa 6:2; Ezek 10:3; Col 1:16; 1 Thess 4:16; Jude 9; see MICHAEL). Angels themselves do not have a physical form and do not reproduce their kind as humans do (Matt 22:30).

When God sends them as his messengers to humans, he may give them a form similar to that of humans, though they are usually sufficiently different to create a feeling of great awe (Judg 13:1520; Matt 28:2-3; Luke 2:9; 24:4; John 20:12; Acts 1:10; 6:15). Cherubim are spirit beings of one of the higher angelic orders. They usually feature as guardians of God’s throne and protectors of his interests (Gen 3:24; Exod 25:17-22; Ps 80:1; Ezek 1:4-14; 10:1-22; cf. Rev 4:6-11; see CHERUBIM). Great though angelic beings are, human beings should not worship them (Col 2:18; Rev 19:10; 22:89). Jesus Christ is the one whom people should worship; for he is God, and therefore far above angels (Heb 1:5-13; Eph 1:20-21; Col 2:10; Rev 5:11-14). Those who through faith are united with Christ will thereby share Christ’s dominion in the age to come, and this will involve them in judgment of angels (Heb 2:5-9; 1 Cor 6:3).

ANGER

Sudden outbursts of temper are one fruit of sinful human nature. The Bible therefore repeatedly pictures the evils of such behaviour and warns God’s people to avoid it (Gen 49:6-7; Ps 37:8; Gal 5:1920; Eph 4:31-32; Col 3:8). Uncontrolled anger can have far-reaching consequences, producing violence and even murder (Matt 5:21-22; Luke 4:28-29; Acts 7:54,57-58; 21:27-36). It is important that a person in a position of responsibility in the church not be quick tempered (Titus 1:7).

Yet there may be cases where it is right to be angry. Those who are faithful to God should be angry at all forms of sin, whether that sin be rebellion against God or wrongdoing against other people (Exod 16:20; 32:19; 2 Sam 12:5; Neh 5:6-7; Matt 18:32-34). But because human nature is affected by sin, people find it difficult to be angry and at the same time not go beyond the limits that God allows (Ps 4:4; 106:32-33; Eph 4:26). Certainly it is wrong for people to be so angry that they try to take personal revenge. God’s people must be forgiving, and leave God to deal with those who do them wrong (Lev 19:18; Rom 12:19-21; see HATRED; REVENGE). If, in resisting wrongdoing, they are guilty of bad temper, they should not try to excuse their behaviour by claiming they are carrying out God’s righteous purposes (James 1:19-20). God’s anger is always pure, always just, always righteous (Exod 34:6-7; Rom 2:4-6; see WRATH)

ANIMALS

Since the Israelites were mainly an agricultural people, animals played a large part in their lives. Israelites raised cattle, sheep and goats extensively throughout their land, and these provided them with food products and materials for clothing (Num 32:1; 2 Chron 26:10; Prov 27:26-27). They used oxen to pull carts, plough fields and thresh grain (Num 7:6-8; 1 Kings 19:19; Amos 2:13; 1 Cor 9:9). They were to treat their working animals kindly and give them proper food and rest (Deut 5:14; 22:10; 25:4). (For further details see FARMING.) Israelites did not keep pigs, considering them to be unclean animals whose meat was not fit to be eaten (Lev 11:7; Prov 11:22). However, there were pig farmers among non-Israelites who lived in the region (Luke 8:26,32; 15:15). Another animal that the Israelites loathed was the dog, for most dogs in those days were savage, disease-ridden animals that roamed the streets and fed on filth (2 Sam 16:9; 2 Kings 9:33-36; Ps 22:16; 59:6; Matt 7:6; Luke 16:21; 2 Peter 2:22).

For transport people in Bible times used asses (Josh 9:4; 1 Sam 9:3; 25:20; Matt 21:2-5), camels (Gen 24:10; 30:43; 31:17; 37:25; Isa 30:6) and horses (Isa 28:28), though the latter were kept mainly for warfare (Josh 11:4; 1 Kings 10:28-29; Isa 30:16; 36:8). Mules, which combined the strength of the horse with the endurance of the ass, sometimes played an important part in Israel’s communications (1 Kings 18:5; Ezra 2:66).

Many different animals lived in the forest and semi-desert regions of Palestine: lions (1 Sam 17:34; Ps 7:2; Isa 31:4; Jer 5:6; Nahum 2:11-12), bears (1 Sam 17:34; 2 Kings 2:24; Amos 5:19), foxes (Judg 15:4; Matt 8:20), wolves (Jer 5:6; John 10:12), hyenas (Isa 13:22), jackals (Isa 34:13; 43:20), wild asses (Job 39:5-8; Jer 14:6), wild oxen (Job 39:9; Ps 22:21), wild boars (Ps 80:13), and deadly snakes (Num 21:6; Isa 30:6; see SNAKE). The Israelites did not hunt for sport, but on occasions had to kill wild animals to defend themselves (Exod 23:29; Judg 16:5; 1 Sam 17:34-36; 2 Kings 17:26). There were many other animals which, though wild, were not fierce, such as the hart, gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, ibex, antelope, rock badger, rabbit, hare and porcupine. The Israelites hunted some of these for food, but there were others that they were forbidden to eat (Lev 11:1-8; Deut 14:3-8; Isa 14:23; 34:11; see UNCLEANNESS). Hunters used bows and arrows, slingstones, and traps of various kinds such as nets and pits (Gen 21:20; 27:3; 1 Sam 17:40; Ps 57:6; 124:7; Ezek 19:8).

ANOINTING

In Old Testament times, a common practice was to appoint priests, kings, and sometimes prophets to their positions by the ceremony of anointing. Holy oil was poured over the head of the person as a sign that he was set apart for the service of God. He now had the right, and the responsibility, to perform the duties that his position required (Exod 28:41; Num 3:2-3; 1 Kings 1:39; 19:16; 2 Kings 9:3; Ps 18:50; 28:8; 105:15).

(Concerning the everyday eastern custom of anointing the heads of visitors and guests see HOSPITALITY.) Things as well as people could be anointed. Moses anointed the tabernacle and its equipment to indicate that they were set apart for sacred use (Exod 30:22-30). The oil used to anoint the priests and the tabernacle was prepared according to a special formula that was not to be used for any other purpose (Exod 30:26-33). Official anointing carried with it the authority of God, and therefore no one could lawfully challenge the appointment (1 Sam 10:1; 24:6). Anointing was also associated with the gift of God’s special power, or the gift of his Spirit, for carrying out some specific task (1 Sam 16:13). Originally, such anointing was a physical ceremony, but because of this spiritual significance, people began to use the word ‘anoint’ solely in a spiritual or metaphorical sense.

It symbolized the outpouring of God’s Spirit in equipping a person for God’s service (Isa 61:1; Acts 10:38). This usage of the word was later extended even further, so that the Bible could speak of all who receive the Holy Spirit as being anointed (2 Cor 1:21-22; 1 John 2:20,27). Jesus was in a special sense God’s Anointed (Luke 4:18; Acts 4:26-27; 10:38; see MESSIAH). Concerning the practice of anointing in relation to such things as burial, massaging, healing and showing hospitality, see OIL; SPICES.

ANTICHRIST

Towards the end of the first century, certain false teachers denied that Jesus Christ was fully divine and fully human. In doing so they denied a basic fact of the Christian faith, and so showed themselves to be enemies of Christ. The name that the Bible gives to people who show such opposition to Christ is antichrist (1 John 2:22; 4:3; 2 John 7). The spirit of antichrist is always in the world and has shown itself in many ways and in many people down the ages. It will have its last and most violent expression in the final great rebellion against God immediately before the return of Christ (1 John 2:18; cf. Ps 2:2-3; Dan 9:27; 11:36-39; Matt 24:15-21).

More specifically, it seems that it will express itself in the leader of that rebellion, one who is variously known as the antichrist, the man of sin, the man of lawlessness and the wicked one.
Empowered by Satan, this last great antichrist will recognize no authority, Christian or otherwise, apart from his own, and will put himself in the place of God as the sole controller of the human race. He is probably the one whom the book of Revelation symbolizes by the beast with seven heads and ten horns (2 Thess 2:3-4,9-10; Rev 13:1-10). He is destined to perish in judgment at the return of Jesus Christ, and is therefore called also ‘the son of perishing’ (2 Thess 2:3,8; Rev 19:20).

ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA

Pisidia was the traditional name of a highland district in Asia Minor. When the Romans took control of Asia Minor, they replaced the many local districts with a smaller number of Roman provinces. Pisidia now fell within the Roman province of Galatia. Antioch lay within Galatia, on the border area between the two smaller districts of Pisidia and Phrygia (Acts 13:14; 16:6; for map see GALATIA). It is usually referred to as Pisidian Antioch to distinguish it from Syrian Antioch. When Paul and Barnabas first came to Antioch, they preached in the Jewish synagogue on the Sabbath and there was a good response, both from Jews and from Gentiles (Acts 13:14,42-43). The next Sabbath almost the whole Gentile population of Antioch came to the synagogue to hear the missionaries preach.

The Jewish leaders became jealous and angry, and drove Paul and Barnabas from the city (Acts 13:44-50; 2 Tim 3:11). The two missionaries, not lacking in courage, returned to the city soon after (Acts 14:21). Antioch was one of the churches of Galatia that Paul addressed in his Letter to the Galatians (Gal 1:2; see GALATIANS, LETTER TO THE). Paul visited the churches of Galatia again on his second and third missionary journeys (Acts 16:6; 18:23).

ANTIOCH IN SYRIA

Soon after the sweeping conquests of Alexander the Great, the empire he established split into sectors under the control of his Greek generals. One of these sectors was centred on Syria, and in 300 BC the new rulers built the city of Antioch on the Orontes River as the administrative capital of the sector. They also built the town of Seleucia nearby, as a Mediterranean port for Antioch (Acts 13:1,4). With the conquest of the region by Rome in 64 BC, Antioch became the capital of the Roman province of Syria. Christianity came to Antioch through the efforts of Greek-speaking Jewish Christians who had been driven from Jerusalem by violent Jewish persecution.

The two people whose teaching most helped the church in its early stages were Paul and Barnabas. It was there in Antioch, during the stay of Paul and Barnabas, that people first gave the name ‘Christian’ to the followers of Jesus Christ (Acts 11:19-26; for the significance of the name see CHRISTIAN). Upon hearing of the needs of poor Christians in Jerusalem, the Antioch church saw its responsibility to send gifts to help other Christians (Acts 11:27-30). Next it saw its responsibility to spread the gospel into more distant places where people had never heard it. The church therefore sent off Paul and Barnabas as its first missionaries (Acts 13:1-4). Antioch became the centre from which Christianity spread west into Asia Minor and Europe. Paul and Barnabas returned to Antioch when they had completed their first missionary journey (Acts 14:26-28). Soon, however, they met trouble. Jews from the church in Jerusalem came to Antioch and tried to force the Gentile Christians to keep the Jewish law (Acts 15:1,5; Gal 2:11-13).

As a result of the trouble that these Jewish teachers caused, the leaders of the Antioch church went to Jerusalem to discuss the matter with the leaders there. The Antioch leaders asserted that Christians were not bound by the Jewish law, and returned to Antioch with the reassuring knowledge that the Jerusalem leaders supported them (Acts 15:6-35). Paul’s second missionary journey also started and finished in Antioch (Acts 15:30-41; 18:22). He left from Antioch on his third journey (Acts 18:23), but finished the journey in jail in Caesarea (Acts 23:3135). There is no record of any further visits Paul made to Antioch.

ANXIETY

In a world where people face daily troubles and future uncertainties, it is natural that often they become anxious (1 Cor 7:32-33). Those who trust in God, however, need not be burdened by anxiety. God understands their troubles and concerns, and he promises them his peace if they cast their cares upon him (Ps 55:22; Jer 17:8; Phil 4:6-7; 1 Peter 5:7; see PEACE; PRAYER).

Jesus reassures Christians with the promise that since God gives them life, he can also give them whatever is necessary to maintain life (Matt 6:25-30). God is a loving Father who knows how to care for his children. To refuse to trust him is to act like those who do not know him (Matt 6:31-32; cf. Luke 10:41-42; James 4:13-16). In fact, people’s anxiety concerning the affairs of life is often what prevents them from coming to know God. They refuse to give their serious attention to the one thing that can save them from anxiety, namely, the gospel of Jesus Christ (Matt 13:22). On the other hand, when people put God first by allowing him to reign in their lives, they find that he is able to relieve them of life’s natural anxieties (Matt 6:33,34).

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

During the three centuries leading up to and including the New Testament era, the distinctive kind of literature known as apocalyptic flourished among Jewish writers. The name ‘apocalyptic’ comes from the Greek apokalypto, meaning ‘to reveal’ (cf. Rev 1:1). The literature has been given this name because the authors presented their messages in the form of divinely sent visions that revealed heavenly secrets. The revelations were particularly concerned with coming great events. The Old Testament books of Ezekiel, Daniel and Zechariah (also Isaiah Chapters 24-27) show some of the apocalyptic features that began to develop in the later prophetical writings. Likewise, some New Testament writings, such as the book of Revelation and Mark Chapter 13, contain apocalyptic features.

A message for difficult times

With Israel’s release from captivity in 539 BC and its re-establishment in its homeland, many Jews expected that the messianic age was about to dawn. Their hopes, however, were disappointed, and one powerful nation after another continued to rule over Israel. By this time, the ministry of Israelite prophets, which had never been as prominent after the captivity as before, had almost disappeared entirely. Apocalyptic writers replaced prophetic preachers as the interpreters of Israel’s history. But whereas the prophets were largely concerned with denouncing Israel’s unfaithfulness and assuring the people of their coming judgment, the apocalyptists were more concerned with condemning Israel’s oppressors and announcing certain doom upon them. A popular practice among apocalyptic writers was to write under the name of a respected Israelite of a previous era. Through prophecies and visions, this ‘writer’ from the former era then spoke of events from his time to the time of the actual writer, as a means of assuring the readers that God was always in control of events. He wanted to encourage God’s people to endure their sufferings, in the assurance that God would soon overthrow evil and bring in the golden age.

Some features of the literature

Throughout the apocalyptic literature there is a sharp contrast between evil and good, between the present world and the age to come. In the present world God’s people suffer because of the evil that hostile governments and ungodly people direct against them. In the age to come, by contrast, God’s people will enjoy unending contentment, whereas those who are evil will be destroyed (cf. Isa 24:21-23; 25:6-12; Dan 7:9-14; Rev 19:1-5; 21:1-8). Meantime, God’s people must persevere. They have to realize that history must move along the path that God has determined for it, till the time comes for him to intervene decisively (cf. Ezek 39:1-6,21,25; Dan 12:6-13; Mark 13:24-27,32). The visions reported by the apocalyptic writers were not usually in the form of scenes taken from real life. In most cases they contained features that were weird and abnormal, such as unnatural beasts and mysterious numbers (Dan 8:3-8; 9:24; 12:11-12; Rev 13:1-5,11-18). The visions had symbolic meaning and were often interpreted by angels (Ezek 40:2-4; Dan 8:15-19; Zech 1:9,19; 5:5-6; Rev 21:9,15). Such writings enabled the Jews to comment safely on the oppressors who ruled them; for they were able to use symbols (usually beasts) instead of the names of their overlords (Dan 7:1-8; Mark 13:14; Rev 13:1-4; 17:1-18). In contrast to the prophets, who said, ‘This is what God said to me’, the apocalyptists said, ‘This is what God showed me’ (Jer 7:1-3; 23:18 with Zech 1:20; Rev 4:1). Yet in the biblical writings there is much overlap between the prophetic and the apocalyptic. The biblical apocalyptic writers, though they
had similarities with other apocalyptic writers, also had the fervent evangelistic and pastoral spirit of the biblical prophets. Although they saw visions that carried symbolic meanings, they also had the prophet’s awareness that they spoke words from God. And those words made spiritual demands upon people (Ezek 11:1-12; 33:30-33; Zech 1:1-6; 3:1; Rev 1:3; 2:1-7; 22:1-4,7,18).

APOCRYPHA

See CANON

APOLLOS

Over the last two or three hundred years of the pre-Christian era, a strong community of Jewish biblical scholars had grown up in Alexandria in Egypt. Apollos came from this background. He had a detailed knowledge of Old Testament Scriptures concerning the Messiah and became a believer in Jesus. When Apollos visited the newly established Christian community in Ephesus, it became clear that he lacked an understanding of some important Christian teachings. But he learnt from the fuller instruction that Priscilla and Aquila gave him, and was of considerable help in teaching the Ephesian church.

When he decided to move across to Corinth, the Ephesian Christians wrote to the Christians in Corinth to recommend him to them as a worthy teacher (Acts 18:24-28). Foolishly, the immature Corinthian Christians made favourites of different teachers who had helped them, and soon there was tension between various groups in the church. Among these groups was a proApollos faction and a pro-Paul faction (1 Cor 1:11-12).

Paul condemned this formation of factions. He pointed out that he and Apollos were not in competition, but worked in cooperation. They were fellow servants of God (1 Cor 3:4-9). No doubt Apollos likewise was opposed to the Corinthians’ creation of factions. This was probably the reason why, after leaving Corinth, he thought it best not to return for a while, in spite of Paul’s enthusiastic urging (1 Cor 16:12). Apollos must have continued as a travelling Christian preacher for many years. Towards the end of Paul’s life, when Apollos visited Titus in Crete, Paul urged Titus to welcome him and to give him all possible help in his service for God. Apollos may even have been the person who carried Paul’s letter to Titus (Titus 3:13; cf. 1:5).

APOSTACY

One characteristic of true Christians is that they persevere to the end. They never give up their faith in Christ. Those who profess faith in Christ and then wilfully give up that faith are guilty of apostacy (Matt 24:10-13; Col 1:21-23; 1 Tim 1:19-20; Heb 3:12-14; 2 Peter 2:20-22; 1 John 2:19; see PERSEVERANCE).

Apostacy is not backsliding in the sense of a temporary lapse in Christian practice. Nor is it a denial of Christ in a moment of weakness, such as Peter’s failure at the time of Jesus’ arrest (Luke 22:31-34,5462; cf. John 21:15-19; see BACKSLIDING; DENIAL; TEMPTATION). Rather it is the deliberate rejection of the faith that a person once professed to have in Christ. It is a sin that the Bible severely warns against, for apart from Christ there can be no salvation. Once people have deliberately renounced Christ, no other way of salvation is available to them. They have disowned and shamed Christ by an action similar to that of those who crucified him (Heb 6:4-6; 10:26-29). There may be many damaging influences that lead people away from God and cause them to commit apostacy. Two of the most common are false teaching and persecution (Matt 24:9-11; 1 Tim 4:1-3; 2 Peter 2:1-3; Jude 3-4,17-23).

APOSTLE

According to the word’s original meaning, an apostle was a sent one’. Jesus gave the name to his chosen twelve because, after their time of preparation with him, he sent them out in the service of his kingdom (Mark 3:13-15; Luke 6:13). As twelve tribes had formed the basis of the old people of God, so twelve apostles would be the foundation on which God would build his new people, the Christian church (Matt 16:18; Eph 2:20; Rev 21:12,14).

Mission of the twelve

Jesus’ purpose in sending out the twelve was to spread the message of his kingdom throughout Israel (Matt 10:5-7), as preparation for the worldwide mission to follow (Matt 28:19-20). He gave them a share in his messianic powers so that they could demonstrate the triumph of his kingdom through healing the sick and casting out demons (Matt 10:1,8; see KINGDOM OF GOD). They were to move through Palestine as quickly as possible, avoiding anything that would hinder progress or waste time, so that they might complete the first stage of their mission during Jesus’ lifetime (Matt 10:9-14). The apostles’ early activity proved to them that the special powers Christ had given them worked (Mark 6:13,30). Even after Christ had returned to his Father, they continued to perform miraculous works, because the Spirit of the risen Christ now indwelt them. These miracles were evidence that they were truly Christ’s apostles (Acts 3:12,16; 4:10; 5:12; cf. 2 Cor 12:12). Part of Jesus’ purpose in choosing the twelve to accompany him in his ministry was that, after his departure, they might be able to preach about him with the first-hand knowledge of eye witnesses (John 15:26-27; Acts 1:8; 5:32; 10:39-41; cf. Mark 3:14). Realizing that they had a specific ministry to the people of that generation, the apostles tried to maintain a unit of twelve personal associates of Jesus as the basis of the new community. They insisted, therefore, that the person to replace Judas in the apostolic group be one who, like the other apostles, had been a genuine eye witness of the ministry of Jesus from his baptism to his ascension (Acts 1:21-22; cf. Luke 24:46-48). With the establishment and growth of the church, the apostles had fulfilled part of the mission for which Christ had chosen them. They provided the leadership for the early church in Jerusalem (Acts 2:42; 4:37; 5:1-5; 6:1-4), and were general overseers of the expansion of Christianity into the regions throughout Palestine and beyond (Acts 8:14-17; 10:46-48). Because of these developments, they were no longer constantly in Jerusalem and were no longer moving together as a group. When James was executed, they saw no need to replace him in order to maintain the unit of twelve, for it had now largely fulfilled its purpose (Acts 12:2; cf. Matt 28:19; Acts 1:8).

Apostles in the church

Initially apostles were concerned with announcing the good news that, through Christ, the new era had arrived (Matt 10:7; Acts 2:22-40). They then had the added responsibility of passing on the teachings of Jesus to those who believed (Matt 28:19-20). In this they had particular help and enlightenment from the Holy Spirit, as Christ had promised (John 14:26; 15:26; 16:12-15). Teaching therefore became one of the apostles’ main duties in the church (Acts 2:42; 5:21,42; 6:4). As the church grew, other people were acknowledged as having equal authority with the original apostles. They were not part of that unique group of twelve, but they were no less apostles. Among these were Paul, Barnabas, and James the brother of Jesus (Acts 14:14; Rom 16:7; 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8-11; Gal 1:19). Because people other than the original twelve might now be apostles, warnings were given against false apostles (2 Cor 11:13; Rev 2:2). Regardless of the assertions people made about themselves, a true apostle could be appointed only by God (Acts 1:24; 1 Cor 1:1; cf. Mark 3:13-14).

Although apostles increased in number beyond the original twelve, their position was still unique in the church. They were people to whom the Holy Spirit had given special gifts that enabled them to preserve, teach and develop the truths of the Christian gospel (1 Cor 1:1; 12:28; 14:37; 2 Tim 1:11). People accepted the apostles’ teaching as having the authority of God’s Word (Acts 2:42; Gal 1:8; 1 Thess 2:13; 2 Thess 2:15; 2 John 10), and added the apostles’ writings to the collection of inspired Scriptures (2 Peter 3:15-16; cf. John 14:26; 16:13-14; see INSPIRATION). Authority in teaching was only part of a wider authority that apostles exercised in the early church. Their authority extended over all areas of church life (Acts 5:1-11; 2 Cor 12:12; 13:1-3; 2 Thess 3:4,14; 1 Tim 1:20).

Yet on many occasions the apostles refused to use their authority to force Christians to submit to their rulings. They preferred that the Christians make decisions and take action themselves, and in so doing grow in spiritual maturity (Acts 11:2-4; 15:6; 2 Cor 1:24; 4:2,5; 10:8; 13:10; Philem 8-9). By helping such growth, they were again fulfilling their ministry (Eph 4:11-13). The apostles did not pass their office on to the next generation. They were God’s specific provision to link the ministry of Christ with the birth of the church, and to ensure that the church was built upon the right foundation (Eph 2:20). As the authoritative interpretation of Christ and the gospel became firmly established in written form (2 Thess 2:15; see GOSPEL; SCRIPTURES), and as the churches became firmly established through their local leaders (Acts 13:1-3; 14:23; 20:28; see ELDER), the necessity for apostles decreased. The apostolic office had served its purpose, and after the first century it died out

AQUILA

Born of Jewish parents in Asia Minor, Aquila grew up to learn the trade of tentmaker. In due course he married a woman named Priscilla. In every place where the Bible refers to Aquila or Priscilla it speaks of them together, suggesting that they formed a useful and well respected partnership. Aquila and Priscilla were living in Rome at the time of an outbreak of anti-Jewish feeling when the Emperor expelled all Jews from the city. They moved to Corinth in Achaia, the southern part of Greece, where they met Paul. Possibly at this time they became Christians (Acts 18:1-3). (For a map covering the area of their travels see ACHAIA.) When Paul left Corinth for Ephesus eighteen months later, Aquila and Priscilla went with him, and remained in Ephesus when Paul moved on (Acts 18:11,18-19).

They probably helped to establish the church in Ephesus. In particular they helped Apollos, a newly converted Jewish teacher who had come to Ephesus from Egypt (Acts 18:24-26; see APOLLOS). They remained in Ephesus to help Paul when he returned to the city for a three-year stay (Acts 19:1; cf. 20:31), during which he wrote the letter known to us as 1 Corinthians. At this time the church in Ephesus used the house of Aquila and Priscilla as a meeting place (1 Cor 16:19). Some time after this, when Jews were allowed back in Rome, Aquila and Priscilla returned to live there for a time. They continued to serve God wholeheartedly, and their house in Rome, like their house in Ephesus, became a church meeting place (Rom 16:3-5). Many years later Aquila and Priscilla were living back in Ephesus, no doubt helping Timothy in the difficult work Paul had given him to do there. Paul’s greeting to them just before his execution is the final reference to them in the New Testament (2 Tim 4:19; cf 1 Tim 1:3).

ARABAH

The Hebrews used the word arabah to denote semi-desert land. In particular they used the word as a name for that deep, hot and dry valley that ran north-south from the Sea of Galilee to the Gulf of Aqabah (the north-eastern arm of the Red Sea) (Deut 1:1; 2:8; 4:49; Josh 11:2; 18:18-19). The Dead Sea, which was the deepest part of this long valley, was known as the Sea of the Arabah (Deut 3:17). (For details see PALESTINE, sub-heading Arabah’.)

ARABIA

Only rarely does the Bible mention Arabia by name. It usually refers to the peoples of the region by the family or tribal groups to which they belonged. Often it refers to Arabia simply as the east’ (Gen 10:30; 25:6; Judg 6:3; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:4). Many of the people descended from Noah (Gen 10:1-32), Abraham (through his concubine Keturah; Gen 25:1-6), and Esau (Gen 36:1-43) settled as tribal groups in Arabia. They were wandering shepherds rather than farmers, since most of the land was not suitable for cultivation and some of it was desert.

Among the better known tribal groups were Joktam and Sheba in the south (Gen 10:25-29; 1 Kings 10:1-13; Ps 72:10,15; Isa 60:6) and Dedan and Kedar in the north (Isa 21:1317; 42:11; Jer 25:23-24; 49:28; Ezek 25:13; 27:21). These people camped at different places and lived in tents while looking after their flocks of sheep and goats (2 Chron 17:11; Ps 120:5; Isa 13:20; 60:7). Many of them were merchants who carried on profitable trading in gold, precious stones, cloth, spices and other goods (Gen 37:25,28; 1 Kings 10:1-2,10-15; Job 6:19; Jer 6:20; Ezek 27:20-22; 38:13). They were also well known for their raiding and plundering of farms and villages (2 Chron 21:16-17; 22:1; Job 1:15; Ezek 25:4-5).

In New Testament times northern Arabia was occupied by an Arab tribe called the Nabateans, who at various times extended their power west to the Mediterranean and north to the Syrian capital, Damascus. They are mentioned once in the New Testament. After Paul’s conversion, the Jews in Damascus opposed him violently. At the time of the unsuccessful attempt to capture him in Damascus, the city was under the control of the Nabateans (Acts 9:1-8,23-25; 2 Cor 11:32-33).

ARAM

The Arameans, or people of Aram, were one of the many groups of Semitic peoples who lived in the region of the Bible story. The ancestor from whom they took their name was Aram, the son of Shem, the son of Noah (Gen 10:22)

Abraham later moved to Canaan, but the rest of his relatives remained in Aram (Gen 12:1,4-5). Consequently, they became known as Arameans, though actually they were descended not through Aram but through Arpachshad, another of Shem’s sons (Gen 10:22-25; 11:10-32). When Abraham wanted to obtain a wife for his son Isaac from among his relatives, he had to send his servant back to Aram to fetch Rebekah (Gen 24:10; 25:20). (Some versions of the Bible call the Arameans Syrians, though the region was not known as Syria till centuries later.) Jacob, son of Isaac and Rebekah, also went to Aram, where he obtained for himself two wives. Both of them were daughters of Laban, Rebekah’s brother (Gen 28:2-5). Because Jacob had lived twenty years in Aram, and because his wives were from that region, he and his children became known as Arameans (Gen 31:20,38; Deut 26:5).

This explains how the practice developed of sometimes using the name Aramean’ when referring to the forefathers of the nation Israel. The name was related to the place where the forefathers lived, not to their racial descent. The true Arameans do not become prominent in the Bible story till the time of the Israelite monarchy. By that time Aram was known as Syria (see SYRIA). Aramaic One of the greatest influences the Arameans had was through their language, Aramaic. The Aramaic language spread far and wide, and from the time of Israel’s monarchy onwards was the language most commonly used throughout south-west Asia (2 Kings 18:26).

Written Aramaic used letters that were similar to Hebrew letters, and isolated sections of the Old Testament are written in Aramaic instead of the usual Hebrew (Ezra 4:8-6:18; 7:12-26; Jer 10:11; Dan 2:4-7:28). In the Persian Empire (539-333 BC) Aramaic was the official language (Ezra 4:7). With the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Greek language spread throughout his empire and became the official language. But in south-western Asia, Aramaic was still the most commonly used language, in spite of the increasing use of Greek. Aramaic was the language that Jesus and his disciples usually spoke (Mark 5:41; 7:34; 15:34), though they also spoke and wrote Greek, the language in which the New Testament is written.

ARCHAEOLOGY

ARCHAEOLOGY Throughout human history, each generation has left behind all sorts of objects that enable people of later generations to learn about life in former times. The science of archaeology, which is concerned with the study of ancient findings, is particularly useful in helping us understand the history, cultures, religions and languages of the biblical era. Although the truth of the Bible is not dependent upon such findings, archaeology has confirmed the reliability of the biblical record.

Methods

Many features of the ancient world can be readily investigated, because they are still standing and exposed to public view (e.g. the pyramids of Egypt). Others can hardly be investigated at all, because they lie beneath present-day settlements (e.g. the city of Damascus). The ruins that lie buried and can be excavated are some of the best sources of information on ancient civilizations .

As archaeologists dig into ruins, they are aware that human occupation of a site may have stretched over hundreds or thousands of years. When a town was destroyed, whether by conquest, earthquake, storm or flood, the usual practice for the new generation of builders was simply to level off the ruins and build on top of the flattened rubble and dirt. This rebuilding pattern may have been repeated a number of times over a long period. The result is that in many places today, the site of an ancient town is covered by a mound (Arabic: tell), which looks like a small tableland. These mounds are a rich source of archaeological information. Since archaeological investigation takes much time and money, archaeologists are usually able to investigate only a small area of a buried town. They try to choose those parts of the town that are likely to produce the most worthwhile results, such as palaces, government buildings, temples and selected houses. Beginning at the top level of the mound, they may dig down progressively through the layers, gradually forming a trench that cuts through the mound. The layers reveal successively more ancient eras of the town’s history. By carefully recording and investigating everything they find, archaeologists will in time be able to suggest the era and setting for different findings. Many features help to indicate which period is being investigated. These include the nature of the soil, the kind of pottery, building characteristics, metal articles, coins, jewellery and any inscriptions or other writings (see also WRITING). Scientists are often able to calculate the approximate date of animal and plant substances by using a technique known as Carbon-14. With knowledge continually increasing in all areas of science, archaeologists can call upon more and more expert help from research facilities all over the world. They are also aware that they must constantly review their earlier conclusions as more information becomes available.

Stone Age and Bronze

Age In biblical archaeology, the successive periods from prehistory to the fourth century BC are usually classified according to the successive technologies (Stone, Bronze, Iron).

From the fourth century BC into the Christian era, the archaeological periods are usually classified according to successive empires (Greek, Roman). The Stone Age, which covers an indefinite period extending back beyond 4000 BC, is divided into Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Ages, meaning respectively Old Stone, Middle Stone and New Stone Ages. The next eight hundred years, referred to as the Chalcolithic or Copper/Stone Age, leads to the Bronze Age, which lasted two thousand years from 3200 to 1200 BC. Much of the early part of the biblical record fits into the Bronze Age. It is not the concern of the Bible to provide a detailed history of the world. The Bible’s chief concern is to show how God, in a gracious response to human rebellion, provided a way of salvation. God’s plan of salvation began its major development with Abraham. God promised that from Abraham he would make a people, who would receive Canaan as their homeland and who would be God’s channel of salvation to the world. Abraham enters the Bible story about the 20th century BC. The countless centuries before Abraham are passed over in only a few chapters (Genesis 1-11), whereas the seven centuries from Abraham to the end of the Bronze Age are spread across more than two hundred chapters (Genesis 12 to the opening chapters of Judges).

Out of the huge amount of archaeological evidence from the Bronze Age, certain discoveries have been particularly helpful in understanding some of the customs, laws, languages and other social features relevant to the Pentateuch. Important discoveries from the ancient Mesopotamian towns of Ebla (23rd century BC), Mari (18th century BC) and Nuzi (15th century BC) produce a picture of life in the region that is entirely consistent with the picture given in the biblical narratives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their descendants. Material from Egypt fits in harmoniously with the biblical accounts of Joseph’s governorship and the Israelites’ building of store-cities (see EGYPT).

Ancient treaty documents between overlords and their subjects are in a similar form to the covenant between the God of Israel and his people (see COVENANT). Findings along the route of Israel’s journey to, and conquest of, Canaan confirm and enlighten the biblical record.

Iron Age

The early days of Israel’s settlement in Canaan correspond with the beginning of the Iron Age. In the biblical history, the Iron Age saw the establishment of Israel’s monarchy, the division of the kingdom, the subsequent captivities, the destruction of Jerusalem and the subjection of the Jews, first to Babylon and then to Persia. The Iron Age, which began about 1200 BC, lasted almost nine hundred years to the stirring conquests of Alexander the Great about 330 BC. Archaeological information from the Iron Age is enormous. The sites of many Israelite towns have been excavated, some with spectacular results. Outside Israel, discoveries at the ancient site of Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra) on Syria’s Mediterranean coast have given us many enlightening details concerning the religions of Canaan that were such a stumbling block to Israel. Discoveries from the period of Ahab and Jezebel, for example, provide information about Baal worship that helps us to understand better the ministry of Elijah and Elisha (see BAAL).

For much of the period of the divided kingdom, Assyria was the dominant foreign influence in the affairs of Israel and Judah. Archaeological findings reveal the extensive records that Assyrian kings kept of their reigns. Their many stone sculptures and inscriptions provide a good parallel to the biblical history of Israel and Judah, a number of whose kings are mentioned by name in the Assyrian records. These records also show the politically important achievements of some Israelite kings (e.g. Omri and Jeroboam II). Yet the prophet-writers of the Old Testament record give few details of these kings, considering them to be of only minor significance because of their religious unfaithfulness. With the destruction of Jerusalem, the exile of the Jews in Babylon and their subsequent return to Palestine, Jewish national life entered a new phase. Babylonian findings confirm the biblical picture of the exile, and findings of the Persian Period confirm the biblical picture in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther. The era of Old Testament history was now over, and archaeology shows how the Persian Empire was increasingly feeling the effects of the spreading influence of Greece.

Greek and Roman Periods

Remains of buildings from the Greek Period are fewer than one might expect. The main reason for this is that builders of the Roman Period re-used large quantities of the Greeks’ building materials in their own construction programmes. However, lengthy written records and thousands of documents from the period help compensate for this loss. The widespread conquests of Alexander the Great introduced an era that brought dramatic change throughout the region of the Bible story. Greek culture and language became dominant everywhere. This had a great effect on Jewish history, bringing conflict between those Jews who gladly accepted the new ways and those who tried to resist them. Out of this conflict arose religious parties such as the Sadducees and the Pharisees, along with other Jewish sects.

One of these sects left behind a large library of Old Testament scrolls and other writings, which were discovered only in recent times. They were found in caves at Qumran near the Dead Sea, and are known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. They are among the most spectacular finds from the period and have been of great help in the study of Old Testament manuscripts (see MANUSCRIPTS). Rome took control of Palestine in 63 BC. This date provides a convenient starting point for a period that archaeologists see as one of transition between the Greek and Roman Periods. Most of the New Testament falls into this transition period. By AD 70, the date of the destruction of Jerusalem, the transition was over and the Roman Period well established. It lasted about three centuries.

Throughout Palestine there is much archaeological material that increases our knowledge of the region in New Testament times. This material is of great variety, from the impressive structures built by Herod the Great to everyday objects such as coins, pottery and glassware. Beyond Palestine, in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and other areas of the New Testament story, archaeological discoveries confirm the accuracy of the New Testament in its references to matters of history, geography, culture, language and politics .

The scope of archaeology

No matter how much archaeology may help us to understand the world of the biblical period, we must bear in mind that it can neither prove nor disprove the truth of the Bible. The Bible’s essential message concerns a relationship between God and the human race that he created in his image, and that is something that archaeology is not capable of investigating. It is beyond the scope of archaeology. Archaeology may, for example, shed light on the era in which Abraham lived, but it cannot evaluate the statement that Abraham believed God and God accepted him as righteous (Gen 15:6). The main benefit of biblical archaeology is not in providing some sort of external assurance for Christian faith. Rather it is in providing a picture of life in Bible times that helps those who are separated by thousands of years from the people and events of which the Bible speaks.

AREOPAGUS

The Areopagus was an ancient and highly respected council of philosophers in Athens. The name came from the hill in Athens where the council originally met (commonly known as Mars Hill), though in New Testament times the council met in the commercial area of the town itself. The council consisted of philosophers from the two main schools of Greek philosophy, the Epicureans and the Stoics (see EPICUREANS; STOICS). Athens was a famous centre of learning where people publicly discussed philosophy, religion and politics (Acts 17:21).

The Areopagus was responsible for the orderly conduct of all public lecturing in Athens. When some of its members heard Paul preaching in the public places of the city, they invited him to give the Areopagus an account of his religion. From what they had heard, they thought he was announcing two new gods, whose names were Jesus’ and Resurrection’ (Acts 17:16-20). Paul explained to the Areopagus the nature of the God they did not know. This God was the creator and controller of the universe, and the judge of all people everywhere.

The death and resurrection of Jesus made forgiveness of sins available to all, but it also guaranteed judgment for those who refused to repent (Acts 17:22-31). Paul won the attention of the council with an explanation of the gospel that contained specific points relating to Epicurean and Stoic beliefs; but on the whole both groups rejected his teaching about the resurrection. There were a few, however, who believed (Acts 17:32-34)

ARISTARCHUS

Among the faithful helpers who travelled with Paul on his preaching tours was Aristarchus, a Christian from Thessalonica in the northern Greek province of Macedonia (Acts 19:29; 20:4). Though attacked during a riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:28-29), Aristarchus stuck firmly with Paul throughout the remaining journeys recorded in Acts. He accompanied Paul on his final visit to Palestine (Acts 20:1-6), probably stayed with him during his imprisonment there, and went with him on his journey to Rome (Acts 27:2). He remained with Paul during Paul’s two-year imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16,30; Col 4:10; Philem 24).

ARK

ARK An ark was a box-like container. In older English versions of the Bible, the word is used of Noah’s floating animal-house (Gen 7:8-9), of the floating basket made for the baby Moses by his parents (Exod 2:3-5), and of the sacred box in the inner shrine of Israel’s tabernacle (Exod 26:33).

Noah’s ark

God’s purpose in commanding Noah to build an ark was to provide a way of preserving people and animals through the judgment of the great flood (Gen 6:5-13; see FLOOD). The ark was not designed to sail the seas like a huge boat, but to float on the floodwaters like a huge box. It was about 133 metres long, 22 metres wide and 13 metres high, with a door in the side and a 44 centimetre light and ventilation opening running around the top of the wall, just below the roof overhang. It was divided horizontally into three decks, and vertically into a number of rooms. This helped to separate the animals and to brace the whole structure (Gen 6:14-20). More important than the preservation of the animals was the preservation of the family of Noah. Noah’s building of the ark demonstrated his faith and made possible the survival of a nucleus of believers through whom God could build a new people (Heb 11:7; 1 Peter 3:20; see NOAH).

Ark of the covenant

The gold covered wooden box known as the ark of the covenant, or covenant box, was Israel’s most sacred religious article. It was approximately 110 centimetres long, 66 centimetres wide and 66 centimetres deep. Its ornamented lid, over which were mounted two golden cherubim, was the symbolic throne of God known as the mercy seat (Exod 25:10-22; see CHERUBIM). (For fuller details of the ark and for its significance in the tabernacle rituals see TABERNACLE.) When the Israelites moved from one camp to another, the ark was first covered with cloth, then carried by the Levites on shoulder poles. The ark usually went in front of the main procession (Num 4:56; 10:33).

When the people crossed the Jordan River to enter Canaan, the Levitical priests carrying the ark again led the way. They stood in the middle of the dry river bed till all the people had crossed over (Josh 3:1117). For the first battle in Canaan, God directed the priests to take the ark from the tabernacle and carry it around the city that had to be conquered (Josh 6:1-5). Several generations later, Israelites again took the ark from the tabernacle and carried it into battle, this time against the Philistines. But they had not done so by God’s directions, and the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sam 4:3-4,11). After suffering terrible plagues during the time the ark was with them, the Philistines sent it back to Israel (1 Sam 5:1-12; 6:1-16). By striking dead some Israelites who looked into the ark, God impressed upon his people that the ark was sacred. They were not to treat it as an object of curiosity or superstition (1 Sam 6:19-20).

For the next twenty years the ark remained in a country house in Kiriath-jearim (1 Sam 6:21-7:2). When David conquered Jerusalem, he decided to take the ark there as part of his plan to make Jerusalem the religious centre of the nation. In putting the ark on a cart instead of using Levites to carry it, he was following the Philistines’ practice instead of God’s directions. The attempted move ended in tragedy (2 Sam 6:2-10). Three months later, after he had realized his mistake, David again tried to transport the ark, this time doing things properly (2 Sam 6:12-13; 1 Chron 15:13-15). With much rejoicing he brought the ark to Jerusalem and placed it in a tent specially prepared for it (2 Sam 6:14-19; 1 Chron 15:23-29). When Solomon built the temple in Jerusalem, he placed the ark in the Most Holy Place (1 Kings 8:6-11). Apparently it was removed during the reign of the wicked Manasseh, but Josiah restored it to its rightful place (2 Chron 35:1-3). The Babylonians probably took the ark with them to Babylon after their destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BC (2 Kings 24:13). There is no record of what happened to it after that.

ARK

An ark was a box-like container. In older English versions of the Bible, the word is used of Noah’s floating animal-house (Gen 7:8-9), of the floating basket made for the baby Moses by his parents (Exod 2:3-5), and of the sacred box in the inner shrine of Israel’s tabernacle (Exod 26:33).

ARMOUR

The main pieces of armour worn by a soldier in ancient warfare were a coat of mail to protect the body, greaves to protect the legs, and a helmet to protect the head. These were usually made of bronze, though sometimes were made of leather (1 Sam 17:5-6; 1 Kings 22:34; Neh 4:16; Jer 46:4).

Soldiers who did the heavy fighting in the front ranks carried large shields, and the archers who came behind carried smaller shields (1 Sam 17:7; 2 Chron 14:8). Shields were sometimes made of bronze (1 Kings 14:27), but less expensive kinds were made of rattan overlaid with leather. They could therefore be burnt (Ezek 39:9; see also WAR; WEAPONS). Christians are likened to soldiers who put on the armour of God to fight against the evil forces of Satan. Their defences against the enemy’s attacks are truth, righteousness, faith and confidence in the Word of God and their own salvation (Rom 13:12; 2 Cor 6:7; Eph 6:10-18; 1 Thess 5:8).

ARNON

Originally the Arnon River belonged to the people of Ammon and Moab. But the Amorite king, Sihon, attacked from the north and overran much of their land. Eventually he was stopped at the Arnon River. The Arnon therefore became the boundary between the Amorites to the north and the Moabites to the south (Num 21:13). When the Israelites under Moses were moving north towards Canaan, they conquered the Amorites and seized their territory (Num 21:24). Later, when Israel’s territory east of Jordan was divided between its two and a half eastern tribes, the Arnon became the boundary between Israel’s tribe of Reuben and the neighbouring Moabites (Deut 3:12,16).

ARTAXERXES

As Persian Emperor from 465 to 424 BC, Artaxerxes had control over Jerusalem during the time of the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah. In the early part of his reign he responded to the complaints of local Palestinians by ordering that work on the rebuilding of Jerusalem cease (Ezra 4:7-23). But his decree made provision for him to reverse his decision at a later date if he so desired (Ezra 4:21). In the seventh year of his reign, Artaxerxes did, in fact, reverse his decree, when he gave permission to Ezra to carry out reforms in Jerusalem (Ezra 7:7,11-26). His other significant decision in favour of the Jerusalem Jews came in the twentieth year of his reign, when he appointed Nehemiah governor and gave him full imperial support to rebuild and secure the city (Neh 2:1-8). For further details see EZRA; NEHEMIAH; PERSIA.

ASA

Judah was badly corrupted by Canaanite religions when Asa came to the throne (910 BC). He spent the early part of his reign trying to rid Judah of false religion, while at the same time he strengthened the nation’s defences (2 Chron 14:1-8). Strong faith and a strong army enabled Asa to defeat an enemy invader and won him encouraging words from God’s prophet (2 Chron 14:9-15; 15:1-7). His religious reforms included the removal of the queen mother (one of the chief supporters of the Canaanite religions), the destruction of idols, and the banning of religious prostitutes (1 Kings 15:9-15; 2 Chron 15:8-15). When Baasha, king of Israel, seized a border town and built a fort just north of Jerusalem, Asa paid money to Syria to break its treaty with Israel and attack her. When Israel turned to fight the attacking Syrians, Asa destroyed the offending fort and used the materials to build additional forts for himself (1 Kings 15:16-22). This policy of trusting in foreign nations showed a weakness in Asa’s faith and brought him into conflict with God’s prophet (2 Chron 16:7-10). Asa had another serious failure of faith late in his reign when, suffering from a disease in the feet, he looked for healing through pagan sorcerers instead of trusting in God (2 Chron 16:12-14).

ASCENSION

See JESUS CHRIST, sub-heading ‘Resurrection and exaltation of Jesus’.

ASHDOD

Ashdod was one of the ‘five cities of the Philistines’, the other four being Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza and Gath (Josh 13:3; 1 Sam 6:17-18; see PHILISTIA). The story most readily associated with Ashdod concerns the temple of Dagon that was in the town. When the Philistines captured Israel’s ark of the covenant and placed it in the temple, the god Dagon fell down in front of the ark and broke in pieces (1 Sam 5:1-5). As a result of enemy attacks that destroyed parts of the city (Isa 20:1; Jer 25:17-20), Ashdod was rebuilt several times during its long history. In New Testament times it was a prosperous town known as Azotus (Acts 8:40). Today it is a smaller town and is known by its original name, Ashdod

ASHER

The tribe of Asher was descended from Jacob through his maid Zilpah (Gen 30:12-13). In the division of Canaan under Joshua, this tribe received the coastal plain from Mt Carmel north to the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon (Josh 19:24-31; Judg 5:17). Like the other Israelite tribes, Asher did not drive out the local Canaanites, who still occupied a number of towns and districts. As a result Asher rarely controlled the Phoenician coast, and for most of its history had to be content with the coastal region around Mt Carmel and the neighbouring hill country (Judg 1:31-32). This was a fertile area whose olive orchards produced the best oil in Palestine (Gen 49:20; Deut 33:24).

ASHERAH

,ASHERIM Asherah was the name of a Canaanite Baal goddess of fertility (1 Kings 18:18-19; 2 Kings 23:4,7). (The plural form of the word in Hebrew was Asherim.) The names Asherah and Asherim were used of the goddess herself, of images of the goddess, and of the sacred poles and trees that represented the goddess. These idolatrous symbols often stood beside the Baal altars on the sacred hilltop sites known as high places, and were important in Baal rituals (Judg 6:25-26; 1 Kings 14:23; 15:13; Isa. 27:9). For details see BAAL.

ASHKELON

The ancient town of Ashkelon has passed on its name to successive settlements on the same site down to the present day. It is situated in the south of Palestine on the Mediterranean coast, and in Old Testament times was one of the ‘five cities of the Philistines’. It was the Philistines’ only port (Josh 13:3; Amos 1:8; Jer 47:7). At the time of Joshua’s invasion of Canaan, the Israelites captured Ashkelon (Judg 1:18), but the Philistines soon regained it. It remained one of their important towns during the time of their hostility to Israel prior to the reign of David (Judg 14:19; 1 Sam 6:17-18). After David broke their power, the Philistines lived alongside the Israelites without any major conflicts. Though in many ways subservient to Israelite rulers, Ashkelon and neighbouring towns were still regarded as belonging to the Philistines. At times they suffered from the attacks of various invaders (Jer 47:5; Zeph 2:4). In spite of this interference, Ashkelon was still standing in New Testament times. It was well known as the birthplace of Herod the Great, and benefited from his building projects. (See also PHILISTIA.)

ASHTORETH, ASHTAROTH

In the Hebrew language, Ashtaroth was the plural form of Ashtoreth. The Ashtaroth were among the Canaanite and Phoenician goddesses that proved to be such a temptation to the Israelites. Although a Baal was a male god and an Ashtoreth a female god, the two are often linked to represent the religion commonly known as Baalism (Judg 2:13; 1 Sam 12:10; 1 Kings 11:6). For details see BAAL.

ASIA

Over the centuries leading up to the New Testament era, the numerous independent states of Asia Minor had been brought under the control of firstly the Greeks, then the Romans. In the New Testament period a number of them were joined together to form what became known as the province of Asia. The local people, however, continued to use the names of the former states when referring to certain regions. In the north-west of the newly formed province was the former region of Mysia, which included the towns of Troas, Assos, Adramyttium and Pergamum. In the south-east was part of the former region of Phrygia, the other part of which was in the neighbouring province of Galatia.

The towns of Colossae, Laodicea and Hierapolis fell within the part of Phrygia that was in the province of Asia. Phrygia was the region where Paul first entered the province of Asia (during his second missionary journey), but God did not allow him to preach there. Paul therefore headed north towards the province of Bithynia, but he was forbidden to preach there also. He then headed west across Mysia to Troas, from where he sailed for Europe (Acts 16:6-11). When returning to Syria from Europe at the end of the journey, Paul called at Ephesus, chief city of the province of Asia, where he left Aquila and Priscilla. This marked the beginning of Christian work in the province. Only a few months later, Paul returned to Ephesus, and over the next three years carried on an extensive work of evangelism in and around the city (Acts 18:18-21; 19:1-20; 20:31; see EPHESUS). It was probably during this time that churches were founded in neighbouring districts at Colossae, Laodicea and Hierapolis, possibly by disciples whom Paul had taught in Ephesus (Acts 19:8-10; Col 1:2,7; 2:1; 4:13). Churches were probably established also at Smyrna, Sardis, Philadelphia and Thyatira, which were towns not far to the north of Ephesus (Rev. 2:8,12,18; 3:1,7). The Jews of Asia were bitterly opposed to Paul and were a source of constant persecution (Acts 21:27; 24:18; 2 Cor 1:8-9; 2 Tim 1:15). The condition of the churches in Asia at the end of the first century is reflected in the letters that John wrote to seven churches there (Rev 2:1-3:22; see entries under the respective towns).

ASSURANCE

God wants believers to be assured of their salvation. He wants them to know without doubt that, having repented and trusted in Jesus, they have eternal life and will never perish (John 3:16; 6:47; 10:28; Heb 6:11,17-20; 7:25; 1 Peter 1:23; 1 John 5:12-13). God promises believers eternal security, and his promises are certain. God is faithful, and his promises can be trusted (John 6:37; Rom 10:13; 1 Thess 5:24; 2 Tim 2:19; Heb 10:22-23; 1 Peter 1:5).

The response of believers

These great facts are all concerned with what God has done, and they are the basis of true assurance. In addition, however, believers are aware within themselves that they are children of God (Rom 8:16). This added assurance within believers comes from a variety of experiences relating to their new life. Such experiences include their desire to obey God (1 John 2:3-6), their sensitivity to sin (2 Tim 2:19; 1 John 3:4-10,19-21), their awareness of God’s discipline in their lives (Heb 12:5-8), their love for others (1 John 3:14-15), their desire to know more of God and his Word (1 Peter 2:2-3), and their constant perseverance in the faith (Mark 4:18-20; 1 Peter 1:6-9; Heb 6:11-12). Without these evidences of a changed life, those who claim to have assurance of salvation are deceiving themselves (Titus 1:16; 1 John 2:4,9-11; 3:10; cf. Matt 7:22-23, 25:41-46). (See also BACKSLIDING; PERSEVERANCE.)

ASSYRIA

The land of Assyria was centred on the Tigris River in north-western Mesopotamia. Originally the land was known as Asshur, after the descendants of Asshur (son of Shem, son of Noah), who were among the early settlers in the region. Over many centuries they were joined by migrants from other regions in the neighbourhood, with the result that the race that developed was a mixture. The people were known by the name of the land, Asshur, and this name developed into Assyria. Among Assyria’s chief cities was Nineveh, which later became the capital (Gen 10:11- 12,22). Assyria was one of the great nations of the ancient world, but it did not extend its power into Palestine till after the rise of a new dynasty about 900 BC. Assyria then set out to become the dominant power in the region, and after a series of conquests of other nations it turned its attention to Syria and Israel. On one occasion God sent his prophet Jonah to preach to the Assyrians so that they might repent and be saved from a threatened invasion (Jonah 3:1-10). God was preserving Assyria to be his means of punishing Israel (Isa 10:5). The history of Assyria as it concerns the Bible story may be summarized according to its kings, many of whom are mentioned in the Bible. In the following summary, ‘Israel’ refers to the northern part of the divided Israelite kingdom, ‘Judah’ to the southern part.

Kings of Assyria

Tiglath-pileser III, also known as Pul (who reigned 745-727 BC), was the first Assyrian king to launch a major attack on Israel, but he withdrew after taking a bribe from the Israelite king, Menahem. Menahem’s action was really a form of submission to Assyria, and it placed Israel under Assyrian influence (2 Kings 15:17-20). The prophets predicted that Assyria would soon conquer Israel completely (Hosea 10:5-8; Amos 7:17). The next king of Israel, Pekah, then combined with the king of Syria, Rezin, to attack Judah. Their aim was to take control of Judah and force it into a three-part alliance that might be able to withstand Assyria. But Judah’s king, Ahaz, appealed to Assyria for help, and Assyria responded by conquering Syria and much of Israel (in 732 BC; 2 Kings 15:29,37; 16:1-9; Isa 7:1-9; 8:4; 17:1-3). Shalmaneser V (727-722 BC), in response to a rebellion by another Israelite king, Hoshea, overran Israel and attacked the Israelite capital, Samaria. The siege had been in progress three years when Shalmaneser died (2 Kings 17:1-5). Sargon II (722-705 BC), the new king of Assyria, wasted no time in bringing the siege to a triumphant conclusion. He crushed Samaria and took the people into captivity. This marked the end of the northern kingdom, Israel (in 722 BC; 2 Kings 17:6). In the meantime the southern kingdom, Judah, because of the disastrous policies of Ahaz, had fallen under the domination of Assyria and was forced to pay it heavy taxes (Isa 7:17; 8:5-8; 20:1-6). Sennacherib (705-681 BC) met opposition from Judah when the new Judean king, Hezekiah, refused to pay further taxes (in 701 BC; 2 Kings 18:7).

When Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem, Hezekiah repented of his rebellion and offered to pay whatever the Assyrians demanded. Sennacherib took a large sum of money, but he deceived Hezekiah by refusing to lift the siege. Hezekiah appealed desperately to God for help, and God replied by miraculously destroying a large part of the Assyrian army. Sennacherib escaped home to Nineveh, but some time later he was assassinated (2 Kings 18:13-19:35). Esarhaddon (681-669 BC), son of Sennacherib, succeeded his father as king (2 Kings 19:36-37). He was one the greatest kings to rule over Assyria. Soon after coming to the throne, he asserted his power over the weakened Judah (now ruled by the evil Manasseh) and over the more powerful Babylon (2 Chron 33:11). Ashurbanipal (669-627 BC) continued the work that his father had begun in expanding Assyrian power. Under him the Assyrian Empire spread to an extent it had never known before. After Ashurbanipal’s death, Assyria’s Empire began to crumble. Babylon was rising to power, and with the establishment of a new Babylonian dynasty in 626 BC, the Assyrians were soon driven out of Babylon. The Babylonians went from conquest to conquest, till in 612 BC they destroyed the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, as foretold by God’s prophets. Nahum, in particular, rejoiced to see a fitting divine judgment fall on such a cruel and ruthless oppressor (Nahum 1:1; 3:1-7; cf. Isa 10:12; Zeph 2:13; see also NINEVEH). Some in Assyria made an attempt at resistance but it did not last, and within three years Assyria ceased to be a nation.

ATHALIAH

When Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, married Jehoram of Judah, the Baalism that Ahab and Jezebel had established in Israel spread to Judah. Athaliah was a strong influence on both her husband and their son, Ahaziah, who succeeded his father as king (2 Chron 21:4-6; 22:1-4). When Ahaziah was killed in Jehu’s anti-Baal revolution (2 Chron 22:5-9; 841 BC), Athaliah seized the throne of Judah, killed all her grandchildren (except one who escaped) and established her mother’s Baalism in Judah (2 Chron 22:10-12; 24:7). Six years later, Athaliah was killed in a fresh anti-Baal revolution, this one centred on Jerusalem (2 Chron 22:12-23:15). The people then destroyed her Baal temple, Baal altars and Baal images, and restored the dynasty of David by placing her sole surviving grandson on the throne of Judah (2 Chron 23:16-21).

ATHENS

In the time of the New Testament, Athens was the world’s great centre of learning. It was famous also for its magnificent architecture, seen in its many temples and public buildings. There is only one recorded occasion on which Paul visited the city, and on that occasion his evangelism was only moderately successful (Acts 17:15-34). Concerning Paul’s debate with the philosophers of the city see AREOPAGUS; EPICUREANS; STOICS.

ATONEMENT

Atonement may be defined as that act of dealing with sin whereby sin’s penalty is paid and sinners are brought into a right relation with God. In the Old Testament the word is used mainly in connection with the offering of sacrifices for sin. The word does not occur in most versions of the New Testament, but it is used broadly in the language of theology in relation to the sacrificial death of Christ. One result of universal human sin is that all people are under God’s judgment. They are guilty, the penalty is death, and they cannot, by their own efforts, escape this penalty. They are cut off from God and there is no way they can bring themselves back to God (Ps 14:3; Isa 59:2; Rom 1:18; 3:20,23; 6:23; see SIN). God, however, gives them a way by which they may obtain forgiveness and be brought back to God. This is through the blood of a sacrifice, where blood is symbolic of the life of the innocent victim laid down as substitute for the guilty sinner (Lev 17:11; Heb 9:22; 1 John 4:10; see BLOOD).

Atonement is therefore not something that people can achieve by their own efforts, but something that God provides. Whether in Old or New Testament times, forgiveness is solely by God’s grace and sinners receive it by faith (Ps 32:5; 51:17; Micah 7:18; Eph 2:8). The Old Testament sacrifices were not a way of salvation. They were a means by which repentant sinners could demonstrate their faith in God and at the same time see what their atonement involved. The sacrifices showed them how it was possible for God to act rightly in punishing sin while forgiving repentant sinners. (See JUSTIFICATION; PROPITIATION; RECONCILIATION; REDEMPTION; SACRIFICE; SANCTIFICATION.) The sacrifices of the Old Testament pointed to the one great sacrifice that is the only basis on which God can forgive a person’s sins, the death of Christ. Through that death God is able justly to forgive the sins of all who turn to him in faith, no matter what era they might have lived in (Matt 26:28; Rom. 3:25- 26; 4:25; Heb 9:15; 1 Peter 2:24). (See also DAY OF ATONEMENT.)

AUTHORITY

In some English versions of the Bible the two words ‘power’ and ‘authority’ are used to translate what is one word in the Greek. In such cases ‘power’ means ‘the right to exercise power’, and this is the aspect of power that is the subject of the present article. Concerning power in the sense of strength or might, see POWER. God is the one who has absolute authority (Ps 93:1-2; 115:3; Isa 40:20-23; Rom 9:20-24; 13:1; see GOD, sub-headings ‘Eternal and independent’, ‘Majestic and sovereign’). Jesus Christ, being God, also had absolute authority, though he chose to exercise that authority in complete submission to his Father (John 5:19).

He had the same authority on earth as he had in heaven, the same authority in time as he had in eternity (Matt 21:23-27; 28:18; John 5:27; 10:18). By his authority Jesus Christ released sick and demonized people from the power of Satan (Matt 8:8- 10; Mark 1:27) and instructed people in the truth of God (Matt 7:29). By that same authority he forgave people their sins (Matt 9:6), gave them eternal life (John 17:2), made them children of God (John 1:12), and gave them the authority and the power to carry on the work of his kingdom (Matt 10:1; 28:18-20; 2 Cor 13:10; see KINGDOM OF GOD; APOSTLE). As the words that the Son of God spoke carried with them God’s authority, so did the words that the Spirit of God inspired the authors of the Bible to write. The Scriptures, Old and New Testament alike, are God’s authoritative Word to the human race (2 Tim 3:16; 2 Peter 1:21; see INSPIRATION). God wants every community of people be properly ordered for the well-being of all. Therefore, he has given authority to civil administrators to govern society (Jer 27:5; John 19:11; Rom 13:1-4; see GOVERNMENT), to parents to govern the family (Eph 6:4; 1 Tim 5:14; see PARENTS), and to elders to govern the church (Acts 20:28; 1 Peter 5:2; see ELDER).

AZARIAH

The Bible mentions almost thirty people who had the name Azariah. The only one who features prominently in the Bible story is the king of Judah who was more commonly known as Uzziah. For details see UZZIAH.