BAAL
Canaanite and Phoenician gods were known as Baals, or Baalim (the plural form of Baal in Hebrew; Judg 2:11; 10:10; 1 Kings 16:31). Goddesses were known as Ashtaroth (plural of Ashtoreth; Judg 2:13; 1 Sam 7:3-4; 12:10) or Asherim (plural of Asherah; 1 Kings 15:13; 18:19; 2 Kings 23:4). The word baal was a common Hebrew word meaning ‘master’, ‘husband’ or ‘owner’. When the Israelites entered Canaan and found that the local people believed every piece of land had a god as its ‘owner’, baal developed a particular use as a proper noun. It became the title or name of the god of the land, whether of the land as a whole or of a particular area of land. In some cases the local Baal took its name from the locality (Num 25:3; Deut 4:3), and in other cases a locality was named after the Baal (Josh 11:17; Judg 3:3; 2 Sam 5:20, 13:23). A locality may also have been named after the Ashtaroth (Josh 12:4).
Characteristics of Baal worship
Baal and his associate goddesses were gods of nature who, according to popular belief, controlled the weather and had power to increase the fertility of soil, animals and humans. Since Israelites knew Yahweh as creator of nature and God of all life, they readily fell to the temptation to combine the Canaanite ideas with their own and so worship Yahweh as another Baal (Hosea 2:5-10; 4:7-10). This identification of Yahweh with Baal was probably also influenced by the fact that Yahweh was Israel’s husband and master (Heb: baal). The Canaanites liked to carry out their Baal rituals at sacred hilltop sites known as ‘high places’. This name was later applied to all places of Baal worship, not just those in the hills (2 Kings 14:4; 17:9,32; 23:13; Jer 17:2-3; 32:35). Among the features of these high places were the sacred wooden or stone pillars known as Asherim (plural of Asherah, the goddess they represented) (Deut 12:3; Judg 6:25-26; 1 Kings 14:23; 2 Kings 10:27; 17:10; 21:3,7; 23:6; Isa 27:9). Israelites had often gone up into the hills to worship God (Gen 22:2; Exod 17:8-15; 24:12-18; cf. 1 Sam 9:12-14; 10:5,13) and in Canaan they easily fell to the temptation to use the local high places in their worship of Yahweh. These disorders would not have arisen if the Israelites had, from the beginning, obeyed God’s command and destroyed all the high places in the land (Num. 33:52-53; Deut 12:2-3; 1 Kings 3:2; Jer 2:20; 3:6; Hosea 4:13). Prostitutes, male and female, were available at the high places for fertility rites. These were religioussexual ceremonies that people believed would persuade the gods to give increase in family, herds, flocks and crops (1 Kings 14:23-24; Jer 13:27; Hosea 4:10,14; 9:1-3,11-14; Amos 2:7-8). The people were also guilty of spiritual prostitution. Since the covenant bond between Israel and Yahweh was likened to the marriage bond, Israel’s association with Baal and other gods was a form of spiritual adultery (Isa 1:21; Jer 13:27; Hosea 1:2; 2:5,13; 4:12; Micah 1:7).
God’s judgment on Israel
Baal worship was a problem in Israel throughout most of the nation’s Old Testament history. It began soon after the people entered Canaan (Judg 2:11-13; 3:7; 8:33; 10:6,10) and resisted repeated attempts at reform by various leaders. It remained firmly fixed in Israel’s national life up till the captivity, when God’ inevitable judgment fell (1 Sam 7:3-4; 1 Kings 15:9-14; 22:51-53; 2 Kings 17:7-18; 18:1-4; 21:1-3; 23:26-27). Possibly the most dangerous period during this history was the reign of the Israelite king Ahab and his Phoenician wife Jezebel, who attempted to make Phoenician Baalism the official religion of Israel (1 Kings 16:31-33). This form of Baalism, under the lordship of the Phoenician Baal deity Melqart, was a greater threat to Israel than the local Canaanite Baalism. To meet the threat, God raised up the prophets Elijah and Elisha. Their ministry preserved the faithful through the crisis and led to the eventual removal of Phoenician Baalism. It was wiped out by Jehu’s ruthless purge in the north, and by a similar, but less bloody, purge in the south (1 Kings 17-22; 2 Kings 1-11; see ELIJAH; ELISHA; JEHU). Local Canaanite Baalism, however, was not removed. Israel’s persistence in Baal worship was the chief reason for God’s judgment in finally destroying the nation and sending the people into captivity (2 Kings 17:7-18 ; 21:10-15; Jer 9:12-16; 11:13-17; 19:4-9). The time in captivity broke Israel’s relationship with Baalism. When the nation was later rebuilt, Baalism was no longer a serious problem (Ezek 36:22-29; 37:23). People were so determined to avoid any link between Baal and Yahweh that they refused to use the word baal when referring to God as their husband or master. They used the alternative word ish (Hosea 2:16-19). By New Testament times Jews had developed a thorough hatred of idolatry in all its forms (see IDOL, IDOLATRY).
BAASHA
Baasha came to Israel’s throne (about 908 BC) by murdering the previous king and all those who were related to him. In so doing he brought the house of Jeroboam to an end as foretold by one of God’s prophets. Another prophet, however, foretold that Baasha’s house would suffer the same fate, and for the same reason, namely, religious corruption (1 Kings 15:25-30; 16:1-4). There was constant war between Baasha and the Judean king Asa during the twenty-four years of Baasha’s reign (1 Kings 15:16-22,33; for details see ASA).
BABEL
Babel was one of three important towns founded by the great warrior-hunter, Nimrod, in the land of Shinar. The other two towns were Erech and Accad. Shinar was the ancient name for the land of Babylon, or Babylonia. Babel was the ancient name for the city of Babylon, which later became the nation’s capital (Gen 10:8-10). The early settlers around Babel found that by combining their abilities and manpower they could achieve progress; but with their progress came an attitude of arrogant self-sufficiency.
They considered themselves socially and technically more advanced than their neighbours, and as a symbol of their achievements they erected a towering structure in the town. The structure may have been a fortress, though more likely it was a temple built on a series of stepped platforms, similar to the Sumerian ziggurats. Whatever it was, God saw it as a symbol of the people’s pride in trying to show themselves independent of him. Since they had used their united abilities to defy God, the divine response was to smash their ungodly unity decisively (Gen 11:1-9). See also BABYLON.
BABYLON
Although its boundaries varied from one era to the next, the land of Babylon was always centred on Mesopotamia, the region of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. This was the region where the biblical story of early human history is centred and where the Garden of Eden was located (Gen 2:10-14). In ancient times the northern part was often known as Akkad (or Accad; Gen 10:10), and the southern part as Sumer, then Shinar, and later Chaldea (Gen 10:10; 11:2,28; Ezek 12:13; 23:15). The land was named after its chief city, Babylon, which earlier was known as Babel (Gen 11:9; Jer 51:31; see BABEL).
Early history
The earliest known inhabitants of Babylon were the Sumerians, and the culture that developed through them provided the framework for the Babylonian civilization that followed. The Sumerians were later joined by Amorites and other Semites who migrated into the region. (The Semites were the descendants of Shem, one of the sons of Noah; Gen 10:1,21-31.) As a result of the intermingling of these peoples, the Sumerians eventually disappeared as a distinct race. Their culture, however, maintained its influence, lasting through the history of Babylon and surviving in part down to modern times. By about 2000 BC the Amorites had become the dominant race among the Babylonian peoples. After overthrowing the powerful Sumerian dynasty that had reigned in Ur (chief Babylonian city of the time), they established their rule throughout Lower, Upper and Western Mesopotamia (see AMORITES). Abraham migrated from Ur to Canaan during this period (Gen 11:31). With the defeat of the Sumerian Babylonians, the Amorite Babylonians set up a new kingdom, centred on the city of Babylon. This marked the beginning of what has become known as the First Babylonian Dynasty. The greatest of its kings was Hummurabi, who reigned during the first half of the eighteenth century BC. He is chiefly remembered for writing a law-code that was far in advance of the law-codes out of which it grew. It dealt with civil, criminal, social and commercial affairs, and provided a standard of justice better than anything the people of Babylon had previously known. The chief god of the Babylonians, from this time to the end of the nation’s history, was Marduk, or Merodach. The Sumerian god Bel was later identified with Marduk. Another god, Nebo, was considered to be Marduk’s son (Isa 46:1; Jer 50:2; cf. Josh 24:2).
Involvement with Judah
The period of Babylon’s involvement in Judah’s affairs began more than a thousand years after the establishment of the First Babylonian Dynasty. During the intervening years Babylon had declined in power and had remained weak for centuries. New hope arose in Babylon about 740 BC when the nation began to grow in power again. During the reign of the Judean king Hezekiah (716-687 BC), Babylon tried to persuade Judah to join it in overthrowing Assyria, the dominating power of that era. God’s prophet Isaiah opposed any such cooperation with an ungodly nation (2 Kings 20:12-19). Assyria at this stage was still too powerful for Babylon to conquer without help from other nations. For a time the Assyrian army even occupied the Babylonian capital (2 Chron 33:11). Assyria’s domination of Babylon lasted several decades, but with Assyria’s gradual decline, Babylon began to reassert itself. In 626 BC Babylon began a new era when Nabopolassar established a new dynasty that spread its rule far and wide in what is now referred to as the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Nabopolassar gradually pushed back the Assyrians and finally overthrew them in 612 BC. This marked the end of the Assyrian Empire.
Babylonian power
Egypt, fearing the expanding power of Babylon, moved north to withstand it. After taking control of Judah and Syria, Egypt established a stronghold at Carchemish on the Euphrates River, in an effort to stop any further advances by Babylon. But in 605 BC the armies of Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabopolassar, conquered Egypt in the Battle of Carchemish (2 Kings 24:7; Jer 46:2-12). This meant that Judah now came under the control of Babylon. When the conquerors returned to Babylon they took with them captives from the conquered countries, including selected young men from the leading families of Jerusalem. Among these was the youth Daniel (Dan 1:1-6). After three years the Judean king rebelled against Babylon, hoping that Nebuchadnezzar (who had now become king of Babylon) would be too busy with wars elsewhere to deal with Judah. The Judean king depended on Egypt to support his rebellion, a policy that God’s prophet Jeremiah opposed (Jer 2:18,36). When Nebuchadnezzar had dealt with rebellions elsewhere, he sent his armies to besiege Jerusalem. After a siege of three months, Jerusalem surrendered (597 BC). When the armies of Babylon returned home, they carried off most of Judah’s wealth and took all its best people into captivity. Among these was the young man Ezekiel (2 Kings 24:1-17; Ezek 1:1-2). Babylon appointed Zedekiah as the new Judean king, but after a while he too tried to rebel against Babylon, again by looking to Egypt for support. Jeremiah continued to oppose this policy, advising Judah to accept its fate as God’s will and submit to Babylon (2 Kings 24:18-20; 2 Chron 36:11-14; Jer 21:1-10; 27:12-22; 37:6-10). But Zedekiah persisted in his rebellion and the armies of Nebuchadnezzar returned. This time the Babylonians plundered and burnt Jerusalem, killed the leaders of the rebellion, and took captive to Babylon all except those who were of no use to them (2 Kings 25:1-21; 2 Chron 36:11-21; Jer 39:1-10). Before returning to Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar appointed a Jewish official, Gedaliah, as governor over those who remained in Judah. When Gedaliah was treacherously murdered, the remaining Judeans, fearing a revenge attack by Nebuchadnezzar, fled for their lives to Egypt (2 Kings 25:22-26; Jer 40:13- 43:7). The attack on Judah came in 582 BC (Jer 52:30), but those who fled for safety to Egypt could not escape the Babylonians indefinitely (Jer 42:15-17; 43:8-13). Babylon was now at the height of its power, and Nebuchadnezzar accepted homage from nations near and far (Dan 2:37-38; 4:20-22). His conquests, in the region covered by the biblical account alone, included Philistia, Sidon, Tyre, Moab, Ammon and Arabia (Jer 27:3-6; 47:4-5; 48:1-2; 49:2,17,28,30; Ezek 26:7; 28:2,21). Then, in 568 BC, he made the devastating attack on Egypt that the prophets had foretold (Jer 43:8-13; 46:13-19,25-26; Ezek 29:17-20; 30:10,24-26; 32:2,11).
Decline and fall
In many cases Babylon’s victories over neighbouring nations were judgments on those nations by God. Babylon was merely the instrument of punishment God had used (Jer 27:3-6; Ezek 29:19; 30:10). In particular he had used Babylon to destroy Jerusalem and take the people of Judah into captivity (Jer 25:8- 11; Hab 1:6). But the Babylonians had acted with such hostility against the Judeans and with such arrogance against God, that they had gone far beyond the limits God had set. Therefore, God would punish them as he had punished others (Jer 27:5-7; 50:23-25; 51:1-5,7-10,24; Hab 2:16-17), and would release the captive Judeans to return to their land and rebuild their nation (Isa 43:14; 48:14; Jer 25:12-14; 29:10). A sign of hope that this expected release would occur came in 561 BC, when the new Babylonian king released the captive Judean king from prison and gave him a position of special honour (2 Kings 25:27- 30; cf. 24:8-15). Meanwhile Persia was rising to power and, in 539 BC, under the leadership of Cyrus, it conquered Babylon and released the Jews (Ezra 1:1-4; Isa 21:2,9; 45:1-5; 48:14,20; Jer 50:1-5,8-10; 51:34-37; Dan 5:30-31). For further history of the Babylonian region after the Persian conquest see PERSIA.
The city of Babylon
One of Nebuchadnezzar’s greatest achievements in the early days of his reign was to rebuild the city of Babylon, so that it became one of the showpieces of the ancient world (Dan 4:29-30). But in the eyes of God’s prophets the city was a symbol of Babylon’s pride, and that pride was embodied in the king. Both the king and the city were doomed to be destroyed (Isa 13:1-11,19; 14:4-25; 47:1-5; Jer 50:13-16; 51:64; see also NEBUCHADNEZZAR). Even though Babylon was destroyed, in the minds of God’s people it remained as a symbol of rebellious humanity. Proud and self-sufficient, it arrogantly defies God. In New Testament times Christians saw the Roman Empire, with its advanced civilization and organized opposition to God, as a first century expression of this spirit of Babylon (1 Peter 5:13; Rev 17:1-14,18). The book of Revelation pictures the overthrow of worldwide opposition to God as the overthrow of the great and proud city of Babylon (Rev 16:19; 18:1-24). God again shows that his kingdom rules over all. He is the sovereign ruler over all the kingdoms that the people of the world may build (Rev 19:1-5; cf. Dan 2:44; 4:17).
BACKSLIDING
According to the word’s common usage, backsliders are Christians who have, through obvious sin or some other lapse, failed to persist in their Christian commitment. If such people are genuine believers, their failure will not be permanent, for God deals with his children by bringing them to repentance. Absence of such divine discipline is an indication that they were never really God’s children (Heb 12:6-8; 2 Peter 2:9). People may have failures, but if their faith is genuine any lapse will be only temporary.
True believers demonstrate the genuineness of their faith by continuing in it to the end (John 8:31; Col 1:21-23; James 5:19-20; 1 Peter 1:5). Perseverance is not a condition for salvation; but it is an evidence of salvation (Matt 24:13; see PERSEVERANCE). In certain cases, what people call backsliding may be something far more serious. It may not be a temporary failure, but a settled attitude of rejection of what a person formerly believed. This is the sort of backsliding that Old Testament Israel was often guilty of, and is more correctly called apostacy (Jer 2:19; 5:6; 8:5; 15:6; Hosea 11:7; cf. Heb 10:26-31; 1 John 2:19). The difference between backsliding as a temporary failure and backsliding as apostacy is seen in the actions of the two disciples, Peter and Judas. Peter was restored, but Judas was lost (Luke 22:31-32,47-62; John 17:12; Acts 1:15-16; cf. 2 Cor 7:9-10; see APOSTACY).
BAPTISM
WITH THE SPIRIT The baptism with, in, or by the Holy Spirit was an event that John the Baptist foretold (Matt 3:11), that Jesus promised (Acts 1:4-5), and that Peter and Paul referred to (Acts 11:15-16; 1 Cor 12:13). Historically it took place on the Day of Pentecost, when the risen and glorified Christ gave the Holy Spirit to his disciples as he had promised and, in so doing, united them all into one body, the church (Acts 2:1- 4,33; 1 Cor 12:13).
The early church
On the Day of Pentecost two separate groups of believers received the gift, or baptism, of the Spirit. The first group consisted of the one hundred and twenty mentioned in Acts 1:15, 2:1-4. The second consisted of the three thousand mentioned in Acts 2:37-42. There are several differences between the two groups. The first group consisted of those who had been believers for some time and who had awaited Jesus’ departure in order to receive the promised gift of the Holy Spirit. The second group consisted of those who became believers only after they heard Peter preach that day and who received the gift of the Holy Spirit immediately.
When those of the first group received the Holy Spirit, the experience was dramatic. But, because of the special circumstances in their case, such an experience should not be considered the normal experience of the Christian. Those disciples had lived with Jesus and could receive the Holy Spirit only after Jesus had returned to the Father (John 7:39; 16:7). The experience of those of the second group, who received the Holy Spirit when they believed, without any unusual happenings, was the normal experience of the Christian, then as well as now (Acts 2:38-41; see also TONGUES). Only three exceptions to this normal experience are recorded in the New Testament, and all are related to the development of the early church. At first the church was entirely Jewish (Acts 2:5,22,41; 4:1-4), but when a number of Samaritans believed, a difficulty appeared.
The Samaritans were a people of mixed blood and mixed religion who originated partly from Old Testament Israel, but they and the Jews hated each other. This division was not to be carried into the church. It seems, therefore, that before God gave the Holy Spirit to the Samaritans, he wanted the Jerusalem leaders to be assured that the Samaritans were true Christians, who were to be welcomed into the church on the same basis as the Jews (Acts 8:14- 17). Later, the apostles were even more amazed when a group of full-blooded Gentiles believed the gospel and received the Holy Spirit without the apostles doing anything at all. It was a repetition of what happened on the Day of Pentecost, but this time among Gentiles, not Jews (Acts 10:44-46; 11:15-17). The third group who received the Holy Spirit in unusual circumstances consisted of some disciples of John the Baptist whom Paul met in an unevangelized part of Asia Minor. At first they did not fully understand how the life and work of Jesus was the true fulfilment of John’s ministry. When Paul explained this to them they believed, and showed themselves to be disciples of Jesus, not just of John, by being baptized as Christians.
They then received the Holy Spirit, as the original disciples had on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 19:1-7).
The timeless, universal church
Paul pointed out, through a letter he wrote to a church of new converts in southern Greece, that there is a sense in which all Christians, regardless of era or nationality, have some part in the events of the Day of Pentecost. Through the baptism of the Spirit, all Christians, the moment they believe, are brought into the church and made sharers in the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 12:13). Jesus’ promised gift of the Spirit, though initially received at Pentecost, extends through the ages to all who repent and believe the gospel (Acts 2:38-39; cf. 1:4-5; 2:33; see also HOLY SPIRIT).
BAPTISM
Christian baptism is a ceremony commanded by Jesus, by which Christians make a public confession that they have repented of their sins and committed themselves in faith to Jesus as their Saviour and Lord (Matt 28:19; Acts 2:38,41; 9:18; 10:47-48; 18:8; Rom 10:9). The Bible speaks of people going into the water to be baptized (Acts 8:38; cf. Matt 3:16), but it gives no detailed description of the act of baptism. The original meaning of ‘baptize’ was ‘dip’ or ‘immerse’, suggesting that believers were immersed in water.
Pre-Christian baptism
Although it had great significance in the birth and growth of the church as recorded in Acts, baptism was practised before this. Jews, it seems, baptized Gentile converts as part of their introduction into the Jewish religion. John the Baptist also practised baptism, demanding it of those who responded to his preaching and repented of their sins (Luke 3:1-8; John 3:22-23; Acts 13:24; 18:25). John pointed out that the baptism he practised, though it may have pictured cleansing, could not in itself bring cleansing or give people the power to live pure lives. His baptism prepared the way for Jesus Christ, who would bring the blessings that John’s baptism symbolized. Those who accepted Jesus as the Saviour-Messiah would enter the kingdom of God and, through Jesus’ gift of the Holy Spirit, receive an inner power to live righteously (Matt 3:11; John 1:26-28,31,33; Acts 1:5; see BAPTISM WITH THE SPIRIT).
The baptism of Jesus
Even Jesus was baptized, though he had no sins to repent of. For this reason, John at first did not want to baptize him, but Jesus insisted. He wanted to show his oneness with the faithful in Israel who, by their baptism, declared themselves on the side of God and his righteousness (Matt 3:13-15). Jesus’ baptism was also his declaration, at the outset of his public ministry, that he knew what his work involved and he intended carrying it out fully. As the Messiah, he was the representative chosen by God for a people needing deliverance, which in this case meant the deliverance of people from the bondage of sin. Jesus’ baptism in water prefigured a far greater ‘baptism’ that was yet to come; for he, as humanity’s perfect representative, would suffer God’s judgment on human sin through his death on the cross (Luke 12:50; Mark 10:38). Having shown his intentions openly, Jesus then received openly the Father’s gift of the Spirit’s unlimited power to enable him to carry out his messianic work (Matt 3:16; John 3:34; Acts 10:37-38). The Father’s expression of full satisfaction with his Son consisted of combined quotations from the Old Testament relating to God’s messiah-king and God’s submissive servant (Matt 3:17; cf. Ps 2:7; Isa 42:1). In both cases the God-appointed tasks could be carried out only in the power of the Spirit (Isa 11:1-2; 42:1-4).
Christian baptism
As Jesus preached the message of the kingdom, those who accepted his message and entered the kingdom showed the genuineness of their faith and repentance by being baptized. The disciples of Jesus, rather than Jesus himself, did the baptizing (John 3:22; 4:1-2). Just before he returned to his heavenly Father, the risen Christ told his disciples to spread the good news of his kingdom worldwide and to baptize those who believed (Matt 28:19). The book of Acts shows how the early Christians carried out his command (Acts 2:38,41; 8:12,35-39; 10:47-48; 16:13-15,31-33; 18:8). Baptism was so readily acknowledged as the natural and immediate consequences of faith that the New Testament links the two inseparably. The object of saving faith is Jesus Christ and what he has done through his death and resurrection. Paul, the great interpreter of Christian belief and practice, saw baptism as more than just a declaration of faith; he saw it as having meaning that is tied up with the unique union that believers have with Jesus Christ (Rom 6:3; Gal 3:27). According to Paul’s teaching, baptism is an expression of union with Christ in dying to sin and being raised with Christ to new life. When Christ died and rose again, believers died and rose again, so to speak. They demonstrate this in their baptism, but they must also make it true in practice. They must live as those who are no longer under sin’s power (Rom 6:1-11; Col 2:12). They are united with Christ in his baptism at Golgotha, as the Israelites were united with Moses in their redemption from Egypt (1 Cor 10:1-2). Baptism is also a witness, or testimony.
It declares that believers are cleansed from sin (Acts 22:16; cf. 1 Peter 3:21), given the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:47; cf. 1 Cor 12:13) and introduced into the body of Christ, the church (Gal 3:26-28; cf. 1 Cor 12:13). Peter, like Paul, interprets Christian baptism in relation to the death and resurrection of Christ. He sees judgment and salvation pictured in baptism, as they were pictured in the flood of Noah’s time. Christ died to bear God’s judgment on sin, but he rose from death to new life. Through him believers are cleansed from sin and made sharers in a new and victorious life (1 Peter 3:20-4:1). The community that believers enter through their conversion is of divine, not human, origin. It is not a club, but the kingdom of God. Believers are therefore baptized not in the name of a human cult-figure, but in the name of God (Matt 28:19; 1 Cor 1:13). The early preachers constantly kept this in mind. Paul, for example, preferred someone else to baptize his converts, to avoid the appearance of building a personal following (1 Cor 1:14-16). Christians are disciples of Jesus Christ, and he alone is their Lord (Acts 2:38; 8:12; 10:48; 19:5; Rom 10:9).
Baptism of infants
The well known practice of baptizing infants, usually by sprinkling, is not specifically taught in the Bible. Nor does the Bible deal specifically with the related subject of the salvation of infants. Although the Bible shows that God has a special concern for children, its teaching about salvation is mainly concerned with those who are old enough to be responsible for their own decisions (Matt 18:1-6; 19:13- 15; see CHILD). Clearly, people are mistaken if they think that any sort of baptism, whether for adults or infants, guarantees personal salvation regardless of what people believe or do as morally responsible beings (Matt 3:7-10). Nevertheless, many Christians, while realizing that infant baptism does not guarantee salvation, see meaning in it, particularly for those in Christian families. They point out that in New Testament times whole households were baptized; though the narratives do not state whether those households included infants (Acts 16:15,33-34; 1 Cor 1:16).
The belief in the value of infant baptism among Christian families is related to the Old Testament idea of God’s covenant with his people. God’s covenant with Abraham, for example, included his household, and the males within that household were circumcised as the formal sign that they were part of that covenant (Gen 17:4,7,10-14; 21:4; see CIRCUMCISION; COVENANT). Believers who practise infant baptism, while seeing it as a parallel to the Old Testament rite of circumcision, realize that, like circumcision, it is no assurance of salvation (Gen 17:23; Rom 2:25-29). Each person is born with a sinful nature and needs to exercise personal faith to be saved (Rom 3:22-23). Even the blessing of being brought up in a Christian family does not remove the need for the individual to repent and accept Christ in order to become a child of God (John 1:12-13; 3:5-6).
BARNABAS
It is not known when Barnabas became a Christian, but he appears very early in the story of the Jerusalem church. He was a Jew from Cyprus (Acts 4:36) and was related to John Mark, whose family home was in Jerusalem (Col 4:10; Acts 12:12).
One who encourages others
In the early days of the Jerusalem church, Barnabas demonstrated his sacrificial spirit when he sold a field that he owned and gave the money to the apostles to help the poor Christians (Acts 4:36-37). Being a good man and full of the Holy Spirit (Acts 11:24), he was well known for the encouragement he gave people. For this reason he was given the name Barnabas (meaning ‘son of encouragement’).
His original name was Joseph (Acts 4:36). Barnabas’ gift of encouragement showed itself on a number of memorable occasions. When many of the Jewish Christians in Jerusalem were doubtful about Paul and his reported conversion, Barnabas gained acceptance for Paul with the leaders of the church (Acts 9:26-29). Being more open-minded than most of the Jewish Christians, he was later sent by the Jerusalem leaders to help at Antioch in Syria, where many non-Jewish people had become Christians. He, in turn, invited Paul to Antioch, and through the help they gave over the next year the church grew rapidly (Acts 11:19-26).
Missionary travels
A fruitful partnership developed between Paul and Barnabas. Their first trip together was to Jerusalem, where they helped the church by taking an offering of goods and money from the Christians in Antioch (Acts 11:27-30; Gal 2:1). They then returned to Antioch, from where they set out on a missionary tour of Cyprus and parts of Asia Minor (Acts 12:25; 13:1-4,14; 14:12). After returning to Antioch, the two missionaries met trouble when Jews from the Jerusalem church taught that Gentile Christians had to keep the Jewish law (Acts 15:1,5). The Jewish teachers argued so cleverly that they persuaded Barnabas to believe them (Gal 2:11-13). After Paul rebuked him, Barnabas saw his error. He then opposed the Jewish teachers and even went with Paul to Jerusalem to discuss the matter with the church leaders (Acts 15:2,12). When Paul suggested that he and Barnabas revisit the churches of Asia Minor, a disagreement arose between them concerning whether to take Mark with them. As a result they parted. Barnabas took Mark to Cyprus, and Paul took Silas to Asia Minor (Acts 15:36-41; see MARK). Although this concludes the biblical record of Barnabas’ travels, Paul continued to speak well of him. It is possible that Barnabas later became associated with Paul in Corinth (1 Cor 9:6).
BARTHOLEMEW
Nothing is recorded of Bartholemew except that he was one of the twelve apostles. In Matthew’s list of the apostles, which groups the apostles in pairs, Bartholemew is linked with Philip (Matt 10:3). In the lists of Mark and Luke, Bartholemew comes after Philip (Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14). John does not mention Bartholemew, but he twice mentions Nathanael (who is not mentioned in Matthew, Mark or Luke). In John 1:45 Nathanael is linked with Philip, and in John 21:2 Nathanael is among the group of apostles, but there is no mention of Bartholemew. In view of all this, the common understanding is that Bartholemew and Nathanael are the same person. If this is so, Bartholemew would have been his family name (Bar = son of), Nathanael his personal name. See also NATHANAEL.
BASHAN
Bashan was the region lying north of the Yarmuk River and east of the Sea of Galilee, though the name was occasionally used to cover a wider area. When Israel under Moses moved up from the south conquering all the territory between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers, they continued on immediately to conquer the land of Bashan. This conquest must have included that part of the land of Gilead that lay between the Jabbok and Yarmuk Rivers (Num 21:24,31-35; for map and other details see GILEAD).
The battle in which the king of Bashan was defeated was fought at Edrei (Deut 3:1-3). When all the conquered lands east of Jordan were divided between Israel’s two and a half eastern tribes, Bashan fell within the tribal area of Manasseh (Josh 13:29-31). This Bashan region included within it sixty cities, the most important of which were Edrei, Ashtaroth and Golan (Deut 3:4; Josh 12:4-5; 21:27). The region was fertile and had good pastures. It was well known for its forests, sheep, and particularly the fine cattle it produced (Deut 32:14; Ps 22:12; Isa 2:13; Jer 50:19; Ezek 27:6; 39:18; Amos 4:1; Micah 7:14). Israel maintained control of Bashan at least till the time of Solomon (1 Kings 4:13).
Some time later it lost Bashan, but regained control in the reign of Jeroboam II (2 Kings 14:25). Israel lost Bashan again, this time without any hope of regaining it, when Assyria overran the northern and eastern sections of Israel and took the people into captivity (2 Kings 15:29). In New Testament times the regions of Iturea and Trachonitis fell within the territory of ancient Bashan (Luke 3:1).
BATHSHEBA
David took many wives for himself (2 Sam 3:2-5,14), but the circumstances surrounding his taking of Bathsheba brought him trouble for the rest of his life. While her husband Uriah was out fighting battles for David (he was one of David’s leading soldiers; 2 Sam 11:3; 23:39), David made love to her and she became pregnant (2 Sam 11:2-5). He then thought of a murderous plan to have Uriah killed in battle, after which he took Bathsheba into his palace as a royal wife (2 Sam 11:6-27). Nathan the prophet condemned David for murder and adultery, assuring David that his own family would be torn apart by murder and adultery (2 Sam 12:1-12). David repented of his sin (2 Sam 12:13; Ps 51), but God’s forgiveness did not remove the evil example that David had already set before his family.
The child born to David and Bathsheba died (2 Sam 12:14-23), but later they had another son, Solomon (2 Sam 12:24). This son was the one chosen by God to succeed David as king (1 Chron 22:9- 10). In David’s closing years another son, Adonijah, tried to outdo Solomon in their claims for the throne, but Bathsheba’s influence ensured that Solomon became king (1 Kings 1:11-31). When Adonijah then tried to use Bathsheba to advance himself in Solomon’s court, Solomon executed him for treason (1 Kings 2:13-25).
BEELZEBUL
Jews of New Testament times used ‘Beelzebul’ as a name for Satan, the prince of demons (Matt 10:25; 12:24-27). It was a variation of the name Baal-zebub, a Baal god whose home (according to an ancient Canaanite belief) was in the Philistine town of Ekron (2 Kings 1:2). The name meant ‘lord of flies’, probably because the local people believed this god gave the citizens of Ekron protection against disease-carrying flies that plagued the area. By contrast other people interpreted the name in a bad sense – lord of flies, and therefore lord of filth. This was the meaning the Jews had in mind when they used the name as a title for Satan. Satan was Beelzebul, for he was lord of all things unclean, in particular unclean spirits, or demons (Mark 3:21-22; Luke 11:14-15). (Concerning the Jews’ accusation that Jesus cast out demons by Beelzebul, see BLASPHEMY.)
BEERSHEBA
Originally Beersheba was the name given to a well that Abraham dug in the dry southern region of Palestine known as the Negeb. Some years later, opponents of the Hebrews filled the well in, and Isaac had to dig it again (Gen 21:25-33; 26:18,32-33). The town that grew up around the well was also called Beersheba. Abraham, Hagar, Isaac, Jacob and the sons of Jacob all at some time either lived in or passed through Beersheba (Gen 21:14; 22:19; 26:23; 28:10; 46:1-5). A number of important roads passed through Beersheba. Among these were the main north-south route from Canaan to Egypt, and the main west-east route from the Philistine coast to Edom (Gen 46:1-6; 2 Kings 3:8). (For a map of Palestine’s main traffic routes see PALESTINE.) After Israel’s settlement in Canaan, the people of Israel commonly thought of Beersheba as the southernmost town of the occupied territory. The expression ‘from Dan to Beersheba’ meant ‘from the northern boundary to the southern’ (Judg 20:1; 2 Sam 3:10; 17:11; 24:2; 1 Kings 4:25). Centuries later, when the Jews reconstructed their nation after the captivity in Babylon, Beersheba again became an important settlement. The present-day town of Beersheba stands next to the ancient site and still marks the junction of well used traffic routes (Neh 11:25-30).
BEN-HADAD
Three Syrian kings in the Bible story had the name Ben-hadad. The first cooperated with Judah’s king Asa in attacking Israel’s king Baasha (1 Kings 15:16-22). The second fought with the Israelite kings Ahab and Joram (or Jehoram). (1 Kings 20:1-34; 2 Kings 6:24-7:20), but was later assassinated by Hazael, one of his generals (2 Kings 8:8-15). The third, who was Hazael’s son and successor, began with some victories over Israel, but later lost to Israel repeatedly (2 Kings 13:3,24-25; Amos 1:4). For further details see SYRIA.
BENJAMIN
Of all Jacob’s sons, the two born to Rachel were his favourites, Joseph and Benjamin. In giving his prophetic blessing on the future tribes of Israel, Jacob knew that the descendants of Joseph would be far more dominant than those of Benjamin (Gen 49:22-27).
Protected son
Since Rachel died while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen 35:16-19), Jacob had a special concern for Benjamin. To protect Benjamin from any possible harm, Jacob would not allow him to go to Egypt the first time his sons went to buy grain (Gen 42:4). He allowed Benjamin to go on the second journey only because he had no alternative (Gen 42:38; 43:13-15). Joseph, though delighted at seeing his younger brother again (Gen 43:16,29-34), used Benjamin to test the sincerity of his brothers before inviting the whole of Jacob’s family to come and live in Egypt (Gen 44:2,12; 45:1-28).
Aggressive tribe
Little is recorded concerning Benjamin’s character, but Jacob had sufficient insight to see that the tribe to be descended from him would be fiercely aggressive (Gen 49:27). Perhaps this characteristic developed in the tribe when, after the division of Canaan, it found itself squeezed into a narrow strip of land between Israel’s two most powerful tribes, Ephraim to the north and Judah to the south (Josh 18:11-28). As a result Benjamin soon lost towns on its northern border to Ephraim (see BETHEL; GILGAL; JERICHO), and towns on its southern border to Judah (see JERUSALEM; KIRIATH-JEARIM). For other important Benjaminite towns see GIBEAH; GIBEON; MIZPAH. The tribe of Benjamin soon became famous for its skilled fighters, many of whom were left-handed (Gen 49:27; Judg 3:15; 20:15-16; 1 Chron 8:40). On one occasion, when the men of Gibeah had committed a terrible crime that brought shame on all Israel, Benjamin chose to fight against the other tribes rather than punish its guilty citizens. As a result of the war that followed, Benjamin was almost wiped out (Judg 19-21). Yet Benjamin, the smallest tribe in Israel, produced Israel’s first king, Saul (1 Sam 9:21; 10:20-24). When Saul became jealous of David, the leading men of Benjamin encouraged Saul to kill him, no doubt because they saw David, and David’s tribe Judah, as a threat to their own position (1 Sam 18:22-26; 22:7; 24:9; 26:19; Ps 7). When David later became king, some of the leading Benjaminites maintained their hostility to him (2 Sam 16:5-8; 20:1-2).
Jerusalem, on the border between Benjamin and Judah, was still under enemy control when David became king. David’s conquest of Jerusalem and his decision to make it his capital probably helped to win the allegiance of the Benjaminites (Judg 1:21; 2 Sam 5:6-7). The blessing that Moses promised the tribe of Benjamin was possibly fulfilled when Israel’s temple was built in Jerusalem, which was officially in Benjamin’s territory (Deut 33:12; Jer 20:2). When, after the death of Solomon, the northern tribes broke away from Judah, Benjamin was the only tribe in Israel to remain loyal to Judah and the Davidic throne (1 Kings 11:11-13,31-32; 12:21; 1 Chron 8:1,28). Benjamin went into captivity in Babylon with Judah, and later returned from captivity with Judah (Ezra 4:1). Mordecai and Esther, who feature in a story of post-captivity Jews in a foreign land, were from the tribe of Benjamin (Esther 2:5-7). The apostle Paul also was from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom 11:1; Phil 3:5).
BEREA
Paul, accompanied by Silas, first visited Berea on his second missionary journey (Acts 17:10). The town was in the province of Macedonia in northern Greece, on the main road from Thessalonica in the north to Athens in the south. (For map of the region see ACTS, BOOK OF.) The Jews of the local synagogue, unlike many of the Jews Paul met on his travels, were prepared to listen to Paul’s teaching and test it against the Scriptures. As a result, many believed. However, Paul was forced to leave the young church when Jews from neighbouring Thessalonica forced him out of the town (Acts 17:11-14). Paul most likely revisited Berea on his third missionary journey (Acts 20:1-2). A representative from the Berean church joined his party to take an offering from the Greek churches to the poor Christians in Jerusalem (Acts 20:4; Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 8:1-4; 9:1-4).
BETHANY
There are two places called Bethany in the New Testament. The better known of the two was the village near Jerusalem, on the eastern slopes of the Mount of Olives. This was the village where Jesus’ friends Mary, Martha and Lazarus lived, and where Jesus was anointed a few days before his crucifixion (Matt 26:6-13; Mark 11:1-11; John 11:1,18; 12:1-7). The other Bethany (‘Bethany beyond Jordan’, sometimes called Bethabara) was in Perea, on the eastern side of the Jordan River. It was one of the places where John the Baptist preached and baptized (John 1:28).
BETHEL
When Abraham entered Canaan, one of his main camping places was near Bethel, in the hill country west of the lower Jordan. There he built an altar, and there he later returned after a time in Egypt (Gen 12:8; 13:3). In those days the town was known by its Canaanite name, Luz. It was renamed Bethel (i.e. ‘house of God’) by Jacob, after he had a remarkable dream that made him feel he was in the dwelling place of God. From that time on, God was, to Jacob, ‘the God of Bethel’. Many years later he returned to Bethel to fulfil vows he made on the night of his dream (Gen 28:11-22; 31:13; 35:6-7). Bethel, along with other towns and villages of central Canaan, fell to Israel at the time of Joshua’s conquest. When Canaan was divided among Israel’s tribes, Bethel was on the border between Ephraim and Benjamin. It was allotted to Benjamin, but was occupied by Ephraim (Josh 8:9; 16:1; 18:11-13,21-22; Judg 1:23; 1 Chron 7:20,28; for map see BENJAMIN). For a brief period after the conquest, the ark of the covenant was kept at Bethel (Judg 20:18,27-28). Bethel was an important religious and administrative centre in the time of Samuel and a school for prophets was established there.
The school was still functioning in the time of Elijah and Elisha (1 Sam 7:16; 10:3; 2 Kings 2:3,23). When the Israelite kingdom split into two, Jeroboam, king of the breakaway northern kingdom, set up golden idols at Dan and Bethel, the northern and southern border towns of his kingdom. The idolatry of Bethel, which God’s prophets repeatedly denounced, was the reason why the altar and the town were eventually destroyed (1 Kings 12:28-33; 13:1-3; 2 Kings 23:15-20; Jer 48:13; Amos 3:14; 4:4; 5:5; 7:10- 13). With the rebuilding of Israel after the captivity, Bethel again became a settlement (Neh 11:31). It still existed in the time of Christ, though it is not mentioned in the New Testament.
BETHLEHEM
Known originally as Ephrath, Bethlehem was a small town a few kilometres south of Jerusalem. It was already an established settlement in the time of Jacob. Not far from the town was the place where Jacob buried his wife Rachel (Gen 35:19-20). Bethlehem was situated in the tribal territory of Judah, in country that was hilly but suitable for growing grain and raising sheep (Ruth 1:1; 2:1-4; 1 Sam 17:15; Luke 2:8-15). It was the home of Israel’s greatest king, David (1 Sam 17:12; 20:6; 2 Sam 23:14-16; cf. Ruth 4:11-17), and the birthplace of the great ‘son of David’, the promised Messiah, Jesus (Micah 5:2; Matt 2:1-6; Luke 2:4,11,15; John 7:42).
BETHSAIDA
Bethsaida was an important town on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee (Mark 6:45). It was a base for fishermen who worked the rich fishing grounds of the lake. Among those fishermen were the brothers Andrew and Peter, who became two of Jesus’ disciples. Another disciple, Philip, was also from Bethsaida (John 1:44). On one occasion Jesus healed a blind man in Bethsaida (Mark 8:22), and on another occasion he miraculously fed five thousand people not far from Bethsaida (Luke 9:10-17). The people of Bethsaida, however, like the people of nearby Capernaum and Chorazin, stubbornly refused to accept the evidence that this Jesus was God’s promised Messiah. Such a refusal only guaranteed for them a more severe judgment (Matt 11:21-24).
BETHSHAN
(BETHSHEAN) At the eastern end of the Valley of Jezreel, not far from the Jordan River, was the strategic town of Bethshan. (For the importance of the Valley of Jezreel see PALESTINE.) When the Israelites first settled in Canaan, they could not conquer Bethshan completely. Although the town was in the tribal allotment of Issachar, Manasseh soon took control of it in an unsuccessful attempt to drive out the local inhabitants (Josh 17:11-12; Judg 1:27). The town was still hostile to Israel in the time of Saul (1 Sam 31:10-12), but by the time of Solomon it was firmly under Israelite control (1 Kings 4:12).
BIBLE
This article is concerned solely with a summary of the Bible’s contents, book by book. Concerning the Bible as the inspired and authoritative Word of God see INSPIRATION; REVELATION; WORD. Concerning the formation of the Bible and the organization of its contents see CANON; MANUSCRIPTS; SCRIBES; SCRIPTURES; SEPTUAGINT; WRITING. Concerning the present-day reader’s understanding of the Bible see INTERPRETATION; QUOTATIONS.
Human sin and divine salvation
The first book of the Bible, Genesis (meaning ‘origin’ or ‘beginning’), opens with a brief account of the creation of the world, chiefly as an introduction to the story of the people who live in the world. From the beginning people failed repeatedly, but God still loved them and initiated a plan for their salvation. He chose Abraham, a man from Mesopotamia, promising to make of him a nation, to give that nation the land of Canaan as a homeland, and to use that nation as his channel of blessing to the world. Genesis traces the growth of Abraham’s descendants over the next two or three centuries, and closes with them settling down as a distinct and unified people in Egypt. These events mark the beginning of the nation Israel. Over the next four centuries the Israelites so increased their numbers that the Egyptian rulers considered them a threat and made them slaves of the government. The book of Exodus (meaning ‘a going out’) records how Moses became the Israelites’ leader, overthrew the oppressors and led his people out of Egypt (about 1280 BC). His intention was to lead them to a new homeland in Canaan, but first he took them to Mt Sinai, where they formally became God’s people in a covenant ceremony. Then, over the next year, they organized themselves according to the laws God gave them for the new life that lay ahead. Many of these laws are recorded in the latter part of Exodus and in the next book, Leviticus (named after the Israelite tribe Levi, which had special responsibilities in religious affairs). The book of Numbers takes its name from two census that Moses conducted in preparation for the move into Canaan. The book contains further laws, along with details of arrangements for the journey. But the people rebelled against God, and their entrance into Canaan was delayed forty years as a punishment. During this time most adults of the rebellious generation died and a new generation grew up. When the time drew near to enter Canaan, Moses repeated, and in some ways expanded and up-dated, the law for the new generation. The book that records this renewed instruction in the law is called Deuteronomy, meaning ‘second law’.
Israel established in Canaan
Moses died before Israel entered Canaan, and his chief assistant, Joshua, became the nation’s new leader. The book of Joshua records how Israel under Joshua conquered Canaan and divided the land among its twelve tribes. During the following generations the people of Israel became increasingly rebellious against God. The book of Judges shows how they copied foreign religious practices and as a result brought God’s judgment upon themselves, usually in the form of invasions from hostile neighbours. Israel had no central government, but when the people cried to God for help he provided specially gifted leaders from among them. These leaders were called judges, because they carried out God’s judgment upon Israel’s enemies and administered justice in local disputes. But among the ungodly people as a whole some remained faithful, and the story of one such family is recorded in the book of Ruth. In an effort to improve national stability, the people decided to establish a monarchy. Their spiritual leader at this time, Samuel, advised against this, for the cause of their troubles was not their system of government, but their ungodliness. The people, however, refused to listen to Samuel, with the result that Israel gained its first king, Saul (1050 BC). He was a failure, and the story of events leading to and including his reign is recorded in the book of 1 Samuel. The book of 2 Samuel records the reign of the next king, David, who was a strong and godly king, in spite of some mistakes. He established a dynasty through which God promised to bring a messiah-king who would be the saviour of the world.
The nation divided
Solomon succeeded David, and the history of the Israelite kingdom from his time onwards is recorded in 1 and 2 Kings. Solomon spent much of his time developing the national capital Jerusalem, but in the process he treated his people harshly and created widespread unrest. When he died, the ten tribes to the north and east of Jerusalem broke away and formed their own monarchy. They still called themselves Israel and, after some early temporary arrangements, established their capital in Samaria. The two tribes to the south remained loyal to the dynasty of David, whose kings continued to reign in Jerusalem. The southern kingdom became known as Judah, after its leading tribe. Throughout the time of the divided kingdom, Israel and Judah had conflict with neighbouring countries, and sometimes with each other. Political, social and religious conditions steadily worsened, though a minority of people always remained true to God. Out of these, God chose some to be his messengers to his people. They condemned the people for their sin, warned them of judgment and instructed them in righteousness. They were known as prophets, and some of their writings have been collected and grouped together in a separate section of the Old Testament.
Captivity and return
As the prophets had warned, both parts of the divided kingdom were eventually destroyed. The northern kingdom was conquered by Assyria in 722 BC and its people taken captive into various parts of the Assyrian Empire. A little over a century later, Assyria was conquered by Babylon, who then advanced into the Palestine region. In a series of attacks starting in 605 BC, Babylon overpowered Judah and took its people into captivity, finally destroying Jerusalem in 587 BC. The book of 1 Chronicles contains a shorter and parallel account of 1 and 2 Samuel, and the book of 2 Chronicles a shorter and parallel account of 1 and 2 Kings. But the books of Chronicles were written much later, after the kingdoms and Israel and Judah had been destroyed and the people were in captivity. A chronicle is an orderly record of events, and the books of Chronicles helped preserve national history and family records, in order to help those who were to re-establish the nation after the captivity. When Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC, the king of Persia quickly gave permission for captive peoples to return to their homelands. As a result captive Israelites returned to their land and set to work rebuilding Jerusalem. No longer was there a division between north and south. However, since most of those who returned were from the former southern kingdom Judah, the name Jew (short for Judean) soon became a name for Israelites in general. The story of this reconstruction of Israel is told in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, who were two of the more prominent leaders in post-captivity Israel. The book of Esther gives a glimpse of Jewish life in Persia during the same period. The three books cover a period of about one hundred years, and with them the historical section of the Old Testament comes to a close.
Wisdom teachers and song writers
In the arrangement of books in the English Bible, the historical books are followed by a group of five books that are largely poetical. The largest of these books is Psalms, which is a collection of 150 songs and poems that express the writers’ feelings during their varied experiences. David wrote about half the psalms, but many of the authors are unknown. Three of the books belong to a category of Hebrew literature known as wisdom literature. Wisdom teachers examined life’s affairs with the aim of teaching people how to live rightly. The book of Job consists mainly of a debate between Job and his friends about the problem of human suffering. The book of Proverbs, as its name indicates, is a collection of wise sayings, the majority of which are from Solomon. Ecclesiastes (meaning ‘the teacher’ or ‘the philosopher’) is concerned with the search for a meaning to life. The remaining book in this group, the Song of Songs (or Song of Solomon), is neither a psalm nor a wisdom writing. It is a collection of love poems that recount the exchanges of love between a young man and a young woman.
Words of the prophets
The final section of the Old Testament consists of writings from the prophets. These were preachers who brought God’s message to his people during the periods of the monarchy, the captivity and the later reconstruction of Israel. Each book, except for Lamentations, is named after the person who wrote it. Isaiah and Jeremiah were probably the two most important prophets and their books are the longest. Isaiah belonged to the time of the divided kingdom and was concerned mainly with Judah. Jeremiah preached during the forty years leading up to and including the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. The book of Lamentations reflects the suffering of the Judeans at the hands of the Babylonians. Ezekiel and Daniel were among those Jerusalemites taken captive to Babylon, but whereas Ezekiel lived in one of the workers’ camps, Daniel was taken into the palace and trained to be an administrator. The twelve prophets who follow are usually called the Minor Prophets, not because they were less important than the previous four (usually called the Major Prophets), but because their books are shorter. Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah all belong to the period that began with the division of the kingdom and ended with the captivity in Babylon. The final three, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi, belong to the period of Israel’s reconstruction after the captivity, as recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah. At the time the Old Testament story closes, Israel was back in its land but still under foreign rule, namely, the rule of Persia. When the Persians fell to the expanding power of the Greek Empire (334-331 BC), the Jews came under Greek rule. Several generations later, through persistent fighting during the years 165-143 BC, the Jews regained their independence. But in 63 BC they lost this independence to Rome, and were still under Roman rule when Jesus Christ was born.
Jesus and the early Christians
The books Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, known as the four Gospels, are concerned with the life and teaching of Jesus. They do not provide a detailed record of his life, but deal mainly with the three years or so leading up to and including his death and resurrection. At times the writers record the same events, but always in a way that is fitted to their separate purposes and the needs of those for whom they write. After Jesus’ resurrection and ascension, the apostles and other enthusiastic Christians spread the message of his salvation. This is recorded in the book of Acts, sometimes called the Acts of the Apostles. Much of the first half of the book is concerned with the work of Peter, John and others who worked in Jerusalem and surrounding areas. The second half of the book is concerned largely with the work of Paul, who made three main missionary journeys through Asia Minor and Greece and eventually reached Rome.
Letters from Christian leaders
Much of the rest of the New Testament consists of letters written by leading Christians of the first century. These have been arranged in sections. First are letters that Paul wrote to various churches in the course of his missionary activity. The letters are named after the churches to whom they were written and are arranged in order of length. The letters are Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians. Following Paul’s letters to churches are the letters he wrote to individuals. They are named after the people to whom they were written and likewise are arranged in order of length. The group consists of two letters to Timothy, one to Titus and one to Philemon. The next group consists of eight letters that come from five writers. An unknown author wrote a letter (known as Hebrews) to Jewish Christians who were tempted to give up their belief in Jesus and go back to Judaism. The other seven letters are named after their authors. James the brother of Jesus wrote one, Peter the apostle wrote two, John the apostle wrote three, and Jude (probably another brother of Jesus) wrote one. At the end of the New Testament is the book of Revelation. Although it contains letters written to churches, it is different in style from all the other books of the New Testament. Through a series of visions, God gave a revelation to the writer, who then passed it on to persecuted Christians. The message is that Jesus is still in control and the final victory of his people is certain.
Commentary
Bible Commentary KJV
Old Testament Commentary KJV
New Testament Commentary KJV
BIRDS
Many of the birds mentioned in the Bible were large birds of prey, of which there were many species in Palestine. They fed on small animals that they killed themselves and on the carcasses of larger animals that had either died or been killed by wild beasts. They even fed on the bodies of dead soldiers that lay scattered over the battlefield after war. Among these birds were vultures, eagles, hawks, falcons, ravens, owls and kites. The law of Moses did not allow Israelites to use any of these birds as food (Lev 11:13-19; Job 9:26; 28:7; 39:26; Ps 79:2; Isa 34:15; Jer 49:16; Ezek 39:4; Matt 24:28).
The ostrich, though not a bird of prey, was considered a wild and fearsome bird, living in desolate or deserted places (Isa 13:21; 34:13; Jer 50:39). There were many migratory birds in Palestine, and almost every month some departed and others arrived. The most common among these birds were the cormorant, ibis, crane, pelican, stork, seagull and heron. Israelite law again prohibited the use of these as food (Lev 11:13-19; Jer 8:7). It did not prohibit the eating of quails (Exod 16:13; Num 11:31-32; Ps 105:40). Birds that were commonly seen around towns and villages were sparrows, swallows, doves and pigeons. Since these were allowable as food, people often caught them in traps, and then cooked and sold them (Lev 5:7; Ps 84:3; 91:3; Prov 26:2; Eccles 9:12; Amos 3:5; Matt 10:29). Israelites also kept chickens, both for their meat and for their eggs (1 Kings 4:23; Matt 23:37; 26:34).
BLASPHEMY
Bad or insulting language directed at a person or thing is usually referred to as a curse. When directed at God it becomes a blasphemy. According to the law of Moses, blasphemy was an act not merely of disrespect to God but of rebellion against God. The penalty was death (Lev 24:10-23; 1 Kings 21:10; Acts 6:11; 7:58). Israelites by nature had a reverence for the name of God, and were not as likely to speak blasphemously of God as the Gentiles were (2 Kings 19:6,22; Ps 74:10,18). But they often acted blasphemously, as seen for example when they turned from God to serve idols (Ezek 20:27-28). Jews of New Testament times accused Jesus of blasphemy because he claimed for himself powers that belonged to God only (Mark 2:7; 14:61-64).
This was one reason why they persecuted Jesus and his followers. They even tried to make the followers of Jesus curse him – and that really would have been blasphemy (Acts 26:11). In fact, the Jews themselves were the ones guilty of blasphemy; for in speaking evil of Jesus they were speaking evil of God (1 Tim 1:13). The blasphemy of the Holy Spirit was a sin that Jesus said could not be forgiven. This statement must be understood in its context. Jesus realized that many Jews did not clearly understand the nature of his messiahship, and did not know what he meant by referring to himself as ‘the Son of man’.
God could forgive people’s doubts and misunderstandings about Jesus, but he would not forgive their deliberate rejection of the plain evidence that Jesus’ works were good and they originated in God. When people called God’s Spirit Satan and called good evil, they put themselves in a position where they had no way of acknowledging God’s goodness. They therefore had no way of receiving his forgiveness (Matt 12:22- 32; Mark 3:28-30). If people today are distressed through thinking they cannot be forgiven because of some blasphemy they have spoken, they should realize that their distress is a sure sign that they have not committed the sin Jesus referred to. The sin Jesus condemned is not a rashly spoken curse, but a deliberate refusal of God; not a single act, but a persistent attitude. And so long as people stubbornly persists in that attitude they cannot be forgiven.
BLESSING
Consistently the Bible refers to the gifts that God gives, whether material or spiritual, as blessings (Gen 9:1; Lev 25:21; Num 6:22-26; Ps 115:12-15; Prov 10:22; Eph 1:3; Heb 6:7). Often it contrasts God’s blessings with his cursings or punishments (Deut 11:26-28; 27:12-13; 30:19). Even in ordinary human relationships, to desire blessing or cursing for another person meant to desire benefits or calamities for that person (Gen 27:12; Num 22:6; Rom 12:14; Jas 3:10-11). A blessing in this sense was not a mere expression of good wishes, but an announcement that people believed carried with it the power to make the wishes come true (Gen 27:27-29,33; 49:1,28; Num 24:10; 2 Sam 7:29).
(For a similar idea, but with opposite results, see CURSE.) People gave blessings on important occasions, most notably at births, marriages and farewells (Gen 14:18-19; 24:60; Ruth 4:14-15; Mark 10:13-16; Luke 2:33-35; 24:50). Usually the person of higher status blessed the one of lower status (Heb 7:7; cf. Gen 14:18-20). The blessing that people in Israelite families wanted most was the prophetic announcement by which the head of the family passed on favours to his children (Gen 27:36-41; 48:8-22; 49:1-28; Deut 33:1-29; Heb 11:20-21; 12:17). Probably the most striking example of a blessing carrying with it the power of certain fulfilment was God’s blessing to Abraham that promised him a people and a land (Gen 12:1-3; 26:24). Since a blessing expressed the desire for a person’s well-being, it was also used as a formal greeting, even from an inferior to a superior (Gen 47:7-10). A blessing could therefore become an expression of praise, and in this sense grateful people can bless God (Ps 28:6; 31:21; 41:13; Dan 2:19-20; Mark 11:9- 10; Lk 1:68; Rom 1:25; Eph 1:3). A thanksgiving to God such as before eating a meal is sometimes called a blessing (Mark 6:41; 8:7; 14:22; 1 Cor 10:16).
There is another word sometimes translated ‘blessed’ that refers to the happiness or well-being of a person. It is usually used to denote the contented state of the person who lives uprightly according to God’s principles and who, as a result, enjoys God’s favour (Ps 1:1; 32:1; 41:1; Prov 3:13; Matt 11:6; 16:17; Luke 1:45; 12:37; Rom 4:6-9; James 1:12; Rev 16:15). When people enter God’s kingdom and live under the kingly rule of Christ, they experience the sort of deep seated joy that Christ himself experienced. Such joy is a foretaste of the greater blessedness that will be theirs when they are with Christ in the day of his kingdom’s final glory (Matt 5:2-11; 25:34; John 15:11; see JOY).
BLOOD
The special significance of blood in the Bible is that it commonly signifies death; not death through natural causes, but death through killing or violence. In the language of the Bible, anyone responsible for the death of another has upon him the blood of the dead person, and the one who executes the guilty avenges the blood of the dead person (Num 35:19; 1 Kings 2:32-33,37; Matt 27:4,24-25; Acts 5:28; Rev 6:10; 17:6). Likewise those who lay down their lives for others are, so to speak, offering their own blood (2 Sam 23:15-17; Rom 5:6-9).
The life of the flesh
Blood has this special significance because ‘the life of the flesh is in the blood’ (Gen 9:4; Lev 17:11; Deut 12:23). However, the Bible’s emphasis is not on blood circulating through the body, but on shed blood; not on blood’s chemical properties, but on its symbolic significance. Since blood in the body represents life, shed blood represents life poured out; that is, death. One of the principles on which Israelite law was based was that all physical life belonged to God and was therefore precious in his sight. This was particularly so in the case of human life, because men and women are made in God’s image (Gen 1:26). Any person who killed another without God’s approval was considered no longer worthy to enjoy God’s gift of life and had to be executed. In this case the executioner was not guilty of wrongdoing, because he was acting with God’s approval. He was carrying out God’s judgment (Gen 9:5-6). Therefore, until a murderer was punished, the blood of the murdered person cried out for justice (Gen 4:10; Num 35:33; Deut 19:11-13). Animal life also belonged to God. God allowed the flesh of animals to be a source of food for human beings, but in the law he set out for Israel, those who took an animal’s life had to acknowledge God as the rightful owner of that life. They took the animal’s life only by God’s permission. Therefore, they poured out the animal’s blood (representing the life that had been taken) either on the altar or on the ground. This was an expression of sacrificial thanks to God for benefits received at the cost of the animal’s life. Any drinking of the blood was strictly forbidden (Gen 9:4; Lev 17:3-7,10-14; 19:26; Deut 12:15-16,20-28).
The blood of atonement
Because of this connection between shed blood and life laid down, God gave the blood of sacrificial animals to his people as a way of atonement. Their sin made them guilty before God, and the penalty was death. But God in his mercy provided a way for repentant sinners to come to him and have their sins forgiven, while at the same time the penalty for their sin was carried out. An animal was killed in their place. People received forgiveness through the animal’s blood; that is, through the animal’s death on their behalf (Lev 17:11; see ATONEMENT; SACRIFICE). This symbolic significance of blood was clearly illustrated at the time of the Passover in Egypt. The sprinkling of the blood around the door was a sign that an animal had died in the place of the person who was under judgment. The firstborn was saved through the death of an innocent substitute (Exod 12:13).
The blood of Christ
Human beings live in a body of flesh that is kept alive by the blood that circulates through it. Therefore, when Jesus became a human being he took upon himself the nature of ‘flesh and blood’ (Heb 2:14; 5:7; cf. Matt 16:17; Gal 1:16; Eph 6:12). All humankind was, because of sin, under the penalty of death; but when Jesus Christ died on the cross in the sinner’s place, he made salvation possible. He broke the power of sin through his own blood (Acts 20:28; Eph 1:7; Titus 2:14; Rev 1:5; 5:9). In the New Testament the expressions ‘blood of the cross’, ‘blood of Christ’ and ‘death of Christ’ are often used interchangeably (Rom 5:7-9; Eph 2:13,16; Col 1:20,22). To have life through Christ’s blood means to have life through his death. There is no suggestion of using Christ’s blood in any way that might be likened to the modern practice of a blood transfusion. Christ did not give his blood in the sense of a blood donor who helps overcome some lack in another person. He gave his blood through dying to bear the penalty of sin (Rom 3:24-25; Col 1:14; 1 Peter 2:24; 1 John 1:7). Those who ‘share in Christ’s blood’ share in the benefits of his death through receiving forgiveness of sins and eternal life (John 6:54-58; 1 Cor 10:16). The book of Revelation uses the symbolism of Christ’s blood in relation to the presence in heaven of those killed for the sake of Christ. Yet their fitness to appear in God’s presence is because of Christ’s sacrifice, not theirs. They are cleansed through Christ’s blood. This does not mean that they are washed in blood in the sense that clothes are washed in water, but that they are cleansed from sin through Christ’s atoning death (Rev 7:14; cf. 1 Peter 1:2; 1 John 1:7). Under the Old Testament system people’s access to God was limited. Once a year, on the Day of Atonement, the high priest, and he alone, could enter the Most Holy Place, the symbol of God’s presence.
Even then, he could enter the divine presence only by taking with him the blood of a sacrificial animal and sprinkling it on and in front of the mercy seat. This blood was a sign of a life laid down in atonement for sin, so that the barrier to God’s presence through sin might be removed (Lev 16:1-34; Heb 9:7,25; for details of the ritual see DAY OF ATONEMENT). But Christ, the great high priest, entered the heavenly presence of God, not with his blood but through his blood. He entered by means of his death. Christ has no need to carry out blood rituals in heaven, for he has already put away sin by the sacrifice of himself (Heb 9:12,24-26). Just as he entered God’s holy presence through his blood, so his people can have boldness to enter by the same blood. They claim for themselves the benefits of his death (Heb 10:19).
BOASTING
One result of pride and self-sufficiency is that people boast of their achievements instead of giving honour to God (Deut 8:11-14; Jer 9:23; Dan 4:30; 1 Cor 4:7; James 4:13-16). Such boasting is hateful to God and will bring from him a humiliating judgment (Isa 10:15-16; 37:23-29; Luke 18:10-14; cf. Matt 6:1-4; John 12:43). Confidence in self is one of the things that prevent people from coming to God and receiving God’s salvation. People cannot earn salvation as a reward for any good deeds they might do. They can only receive it as a gift that God gives freely to those who trust in his grace. They therefore have nothing of themselves that they can boast about (Rom 3:27-28; 4:1-5; 9:30-32; Eph 2:8-9). If they boast at all, they boast in what God has done, not in what they have done (Jer 9:24; 1 Cor 1:31; Gal 6:14; see also PRIDE). The Bible records one occasion on which the apostle Paul boasted, even though he knew it was not the sort of thing a Christian should do. But his purpose was to answer certain people in Corinth who opposed him. These people too easily believed the boasting of men who set themselves up as super apostles (2 Cor 10:8,13; 11:1-5,16-21; 12:1-11). By contrast, most of the things that Paul boasted of were things that the normally boastful person would be ashamed to speak about, namely, his personal humiliations (2 Cor 11:23-30).
BOAZ
If the Rahab whom the Israelites saved at the time of Jericho’s destruction is the same Rahab whose name appears in the genealogy of Jesus, then Boaz was descended from her (Josh 6:17; Ruth 4:18-22; Matt 1:1,5). He features in the book of Ruth as the man who helped the young Moabite widow Ruth and later married her (see RUTH). Boaz was a godly man who was eager to reward Ruth when he learnt of her kindness to her widowed mother-in-law (Ruth 2:11-12). He protected her from the local youths (Ruth 2:8-9,22), supplied her with food and drink during her day’s work (Ruth 2:9,14), rewarded her gleaning (Ruth 2:16-20) and gave her extra supplies of grain (Ruth 3:15). He showed no racial prejudice against her in spite of the traditional hostility between Israel and Moab (Ruth 2:6,10). When Ruth asked Boaz to keep alive the name of her late husband by fulfilling the duties of a close relative, Boaz responded generously. He was open and honourable in all his dealings with her, whether concerning marriage or property (Ruth 3:11-13; 4:1-6). He married Ruth, and the child born to them was an ancestor of King David and of Jesus the Messiah (Ruth 4:18-22; Matt 1:1,5).
BODY
Although the Bible may speak of the body as being distinct from a person’s spirit, soul, or mind (Micah 6:7; Matt 10:28; Rom 7:23-25), it also speaks of the body as representing the person (Neh 9:37; Rom 12:1; 1 Cor 13:3). This is because the Bible regards a human being as a unified whole, not as something that can be divided into separate independent parts.
Part of a unified whole
Each human being, as created in God’s image, exists in a living body (Gen 1:27). For this reason the Christian’s hope is not for the endless life of the spirit or soul in a bodiless existence, because a person without a body is not a complete person. What Christians look forward to is the resurrection of the body to full and eternal life (2 Cor 5:1-5; see HUMANITY, HUMANKIND). They do not yet know the exact nature of this resurrection body, but they know at least that it will be imperishable, beautiful, strong, suited to the life of the age to come, and patterned on Christ’s glorious body (1 Cor 15:35-54; Phil 3:20-21; 1 John 3:2; see RESURRECTION). Since the whole person is created in God’s image and the whole person is destined for eternal glory, Christians should not despise the body. They should not consider it something evil. They may be ashamed of the wrong things they do through the body, but this is all the more reason why they must exercise discipline over it (Matt 5:27-30; Rom 6:12-13; 8:13; 1 Cor 9:27; 1 Thess 5:23; James 3:3-5; see FLESH). Another reason to exercise such discipline is that the body is God’s temple, God’s dwelling place within each individual believer (1 Cor 6:12-20). (Concerning the church as the body of Christ see CHURCH.) Likewise in their dealings with unbelievers Christians must remember that it is the whole person, not just the spirit or soul, that is made in the image of God. They should therefore do what they can to meet the bodily needs as well as the spiritual needs of their fellows human beings (James 2:15-16; 1 John 3:17- 18). In this they will be following the example of Jesus Christ (Matt 14:14-16; Mark 1:40-42); though like Jesus Christ they will realize that ‘life is more than food and the body more than clothing’ (Matt 6:25).
A wrong view
In the church of the first and second centuries a kind of false teaching developed which asserted that the body, being material, was evil. This produced extremes of behaviour, from strict self-denial to unrestrained immorality. The false teachers claimed to have a special knowledge in relation to the world of matter and the world of spirit. Their ‘knowledge’, however, was false and its outcome was wrong behaviour (Col 2:23; 1 John 1:8; 3:10). (For further discussion see COLOSSIANS, LETTER TO THE; JOHN, LETTERS OF; KNOWLEDGE, sub-heading ‘Knowledge and morality’.)
BOOK OF LIFE
It appears that different Bible writers used the expression ‘book of life’ in different ways. In Old Testament times it may have meant simply the register of all living people. It seems also to have had a special meaning as referring to the register of all who claimed to be God’s people (Exod 32:32-33; Ps 69:28). Among those known as God’s people, from Old Testament times to the present, there are those who become apostates or who were not genuine believers in the first place. They demonstrate this by openly and deliberately rejecting God, and God removes their names from the book of life. True believers do not reject God, and God does not remove their names from the book of life. They are assured of eternal life in its fulness (Exod 32:32-33; Rev 3:5; 21:22-25; see APOSTACY; BACKSLIDING). From this usage, ‘book of life’ has developed a more specific meaning. It becomes the register of all true believers – those whom God has chosen and who have received cleansing from sin through the blood of Jesus. Thus it becomes specifically the ‘Lamb’s book of life’ (Luke 10:20; Phil 4:3; Rev 13:8; 21:27). In the coming judgment, all whose names are not written in the Lamb’s book of life will suffer eternal punishment (Rev 17:8; 20:12-15).
BRANCH
One of the names that Israelites of Old Testament times gave to the expected Messiah was ‘the Branch’. This arose from the Israelite expectation that the Messiah was to come from the ‘tree’ of David’s dynasty (Jer 23:5; 33:15; cf. Isa 4:2; 11:1; see MESSIAH). After the Jews’ return from their Babylonian captivity, the name ‘branch’ was used in relation to Zerubbabel, the Jewish governor in Jerusalem. Zerubbabel was a descendant of David in the royal line that eventually produced Jesus the Messiah (Hag 2:21-23; Zech 3:8-10; 6:11-13; Matt 1:12-16; see ZERUBBABEL).
BREAD
To people in Bible times, bread was a basic part of the daily food. In everyday speech they often spoke of food in general as bread (Ps 37:25; Prov 31:27; Eccles 9:7; Isa 30:20; Matt 6:11; 2 Thess 3:8). (For details concerning the common bread of the people see FOOD. For the use of leaven in bread and for its symbolism in Israelite religion see LEAVEN; PASSOVER. For the meaning of the ‘presence bread’ in the tabernacle see TABERNACLE.) Manna, that unusual food that God provided for the Israelites on their journey from Egypt to Canaan, was known as ‘bread from heaven’ (Exod 16:4; John 6:31; see MANNA).
Jesus spoke of this bread as a picture of himself, the true bread from heaven. He came from God as God’s provision for the world’s spiritually needy people. He alone can bring salvation, and he alone can guarantee believers victory over death (John 6:32-40). This provision of salvation through Jesus is possible only because Jesus gave himself in sacrifice. By accepting the benefits of this sacrifice for themselves by faith, people can have eternal life (John 6:48-58). Jesus also used literal bread as a symbol of his sacrifice. He told his disciples to eat bread and drink wine together, as a remembrance of him and as an expression of their unity with him and with one another (Matt 26:26-29; 1 Cor 10:16; 11:23-26; see FELLOWSHIP; LORD’S SUPPER).
BROTHER
Among the peoples of Bible times the word ‘brother’ had a wide meaning. Its obvious and most common meaning was to those who were children of the same parents (Gen 25:21-26; Matt 4:18-21). It was used also of a person who was more distantly related, such as a cousin or an uncle (Gen 14:12-14), a fellow member of the same community or nation (Gen 19:7; Lev 25:45-46; Acts 13:26; Rom 9:3), or one’s fellow human beings in general (Lev 19:17; Matt 7:3). (See also NEIGHBOUR.) Jesus used the expression ‘brother’ to indicate the closeness of the relationship between him and his followers (Matt 12:46-50; cf. Heb 2:11-12). Those who become Christ’s people are therefore brothers to each other (Matt 18:15,21; Acts 9:17,30; 15:3,22; 1 Thess 5:25-27).
This shared brotherhood should help produce good relations between believers. They should be more tolerant of each other (Rom 14:10-15), more forgiving (1 Cor 6:5-8), more concerned (2 Thess 3:15), more self-sacrificing (1 John 3:17) and more loving (Rom 12:10; 1 John 2:9-11). They should realize that to sin against a brother is to sin against Christ (1 Cor 8:11-13), and therefore should make every effort to prevent, or correct, such sin (Matt 18:15-20; Rom 14:19-21).
BURIAL
See FUNERAL.