DAGON
Dagon was a Canaanite Baal god, and biblical references to it are all connected with the Philistines. There were temples for the worship of Dagon in the Philistine towns of Gaza and Ashdod (Judg 16:21-23; 1 Sam 5:1-5; see also 1 Chron 10:10). (For details see BAAL; PHILISTIA.)
DAMASCUS
One of the world’s most ancient cities, Damascus has existed from at least the time of Abraham (Gen 14:15). It is important in the Bible story as capital of the nation Syria, which was much involved in Israel’s affairs from the time of the division of the Israelite kingdom in 930 BC to the conquest of Syria by Assyria in 732 BC. (For the history of Damascus during this period see SYRIA.) The city of Damascus was on the major trade routes that crossed the region and was an important commercial centre (1 Kings 20:34; Ezek 27:18).
It was also the religious centre of Syria. The ungodly Judean king Ahaz worshipped the Syrian gods there, and built a copy of the Syrian altar in Jerusalem (2 Kings 16:10-16; 2 Chron 28:22-24). After Alexander the Great’s conquest in 333 BC, Syria was made into an important province of the eastern part of the Greek Empire. But instead of making Damascus the provincial capital, the new rulers built a new capital at Antioch. With the Roman conquest of 64 BC, Damascus came under the administration of Rome, though for one brief period it was in the hands of an Arab king called Aretas (2 Cor 11:32-33).
The great persecutor of the early Christians, Paul, was converted to Christianity while on the way to Damascus (Acts 9:1-19). There were several Jewish synagogues in the city, and the Jews opposed Paul so violently that he had to escape to save his life (Acts 9:20-25). After a period in Arabia, he returned to Damascus (Gal 1:17). It is not known how often Paul visited Damascus, though it is known that on several occasions he visited churches in Syria (Acts 15:41; Gal 1:21).
DAN
The tribe of Dan was descended from the elder of two sons whom Rachel’s maid Bilhah bore to Jacob (Gen 30:1-6). In the original division of Canaan, Dan received its tribal portion on the Philistine coast between Judah and Ephraim (Josh 19:40-48; Judg 5:17; 13:1-2; 14:1; 16:23; for map see TRIBES). Besides being squeezed between Israel’s two most powerful tribes, the Danites were pushed back from the coast by the Philistines and the Amorites. The tribe therefore sent representatives north to look for a better place to live (Judg 1:34; 18:1-2).
The place they decided upon was Laish, located in the fertile region of the Jordan headwaters in the far north of Canaan. With the swiftness and ruthlessness that had characterized the tribe from the beginning, they slaughtered the people of Laish and seized the town for themselves, renaming it Dan (Judg 18:7-10; 18:27-29; cf. Gen 49:16-17; Deut 33:22). From that time on, the towns of Dan and Beersheba marked respectively the northern and southern limits of the land of Israel (Judg 20:1; 1 Sam 3:20; 2 Sam 17:11; 24:2). When the nation was split in two after the death of Solomon, the southern tribes of Judah and Benjamin were separated from the northern tribes, who still called themselves Israel. The new limits of Israel were now Dan in the north and Bethel in the south. The breakaway king of Israel set up his own shrines in these two towns, in opposition to Judah’s shrine in Jerusalem (1 Kings 12:28-30). Dan’s isolated location meant that it was open to enemy attack from the north (1 Kings 15:20). It was one of the first parts of Israel to fall when Assyria conquered the land and took the people into captivity (2 Kings 15:29).
DANCING
For the Israelites, dancing was a form of public rejoicing. Usually the women were the ones who danced, though men also danced on occasions (Exod 15:20; Judg 21:21; Jer 31:4,13). People danced to celebrate great national occasions such as victories over enemies (1 Sam 18:6-7), or private occasions such as the return of a long-separated member of the family (Luke 15:23-25).
There were, however, indecent kinds of dancing, such as those associated with idolatry and certain forms of entertainment (Exod 32:19; Mark 6:21-22). Children liked to dance in some of the games they played (Job 21:11; Matt 11:17), and people in general liked to dance at some of Israel’s more joyous religious festivals (Judg 21:19-21). Dancing was part of Israel’s public expression of praise to God after the crossing of the Red Sea (Exod 15:20-21) and during the bringing of the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:14-15). In time, it became a regular part of Israel’s public worship (Ps 149:3; 150:4). (See also MUSIC; SINGING.)
DARIUS
The first of three people named Darius mentioned in the Bible is Darius the Mede, who took control of Babylon when the city fell to the Medo-Persian armies in 539 BC (Dan 5:30-31). The name may be that of a Median leader whom the Persian Emperor Cyrus placed in charge of Babylon, or it may be another name for Cyrus himself (see also DANIEL; PERSIA).
Cyrus was succeeded in 530 BC by Cambyses, and Cambyses by Darius Hystaspes in 522 BC. During the reign of Darius Hystaspes the prophets Haggai and Zechariah aroused the Jews from their spiritual laziness, with the result that the temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt (Ezra 4:24; 5:6; 6:15; Hag 1:1; Zech 1:1; see EZRA; PERSIA). A later Darius, called Darius the Persian (Neh 12:22), ruled Persia from 423 to 408 BC.
DARKNESS
Apart from its literal meaning, darkness often has a figurative meaning in the Bible. Its most common figurative usage is as a symbol for evil. This symbolic usage is natural, for wrongdoers prefer darkness to light. It enables them to carry out their wrongdoing more easily (Neh 6:10; Ps 91:5-6; Isa 29:15; Jer 49:9; Luke 22:53; John 3:19-20; Rom 13:12-13; 1 Thess 5:2,7). The world of humankind, because of sin, is a place of darkness and death. Believers need not fear this darkness, for God has become their light (Ps 23:4; 27:1; Micah 7:8; Eph 5:14).
In fact, when people receive God’s salvation they come, as it were, out of a kingdom of darkness into one of light (Isa 9:2; 42:6-7; Luke 1:76-79; Col 1:13). They must therefore no longer live as if they belonged to the darkness, but live as those who belong to the light (2 Cor 6:14; Eph 5:8-11; see LIGHT). An intervention by God in human affairs may be accompanied by unnatural darkness (Deut 4:11; Matt 27:45-46). This is particularly the case if the intervention is one of judgment (Joel 2:2,31; cf. Rev 16:10-11). Therefore, the Bible may speak symbolically of a day of judgment as a day of darkness (Amos 5:20; Zeph 1:15). In keeping with this symbolism, the Bible depicts the final destiny of unrepentant sinners as a place of terrifying and everlasting darkness (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 2 Peter 2:17; Jude 13).
DAVID
From humble beginnings as the youngest son of a Bethlehem shepherd named Jesse, David rose to become Israel’s greatest king. He established a dynasty out of which, according to God’s plan, came the great Messiah, the son of David, who was Jesus Christ, Saviour of the world (1 Sam 16:1,11; 2 Sam 5:3- 4,12; Isa 9:7; Luke 1:32-33; 2:11).
Early progress
After the failure of Saul as king, God directed Samuel to the young man David, whom Samuel marked out to be Israel’s next king (1 Sam 13:14; 15:28; 16:11-14). Many years passed before David became king, and during those years he steadily matured in mind and body. He became skilled in speech, writing and music, and grew into a brave fighter through having to defend his flocks against wild animals and raiding Philistines (1 Sam 16:18; 17:34-36; cf. Ps 23). David’s introduction to Saul’s court was as one whose music relaxed the king’s troubled nerves (1 Sam 16:16). After his victory over the Philistines’ champion fighter, he became Saul’s armour-bearer and full-time court musician (1 Sam 16:21; 17:50; 18:2). At this time a close friendship began to develop between David and Saul’s son Jonathan. It lasted many years, and was ended only by Jonathan’s tragic death in battle (1 Sam 18:1; see JONATHAN). David’s successes in battle won him promotion, but further successes and growing popularity so stirred up Saul’s jealousy against him that Saul tried to kill him (1 Sam 18:5-11). By this time David had no doubt begun the psalm-writing activity for which he is well known. The biblical book of Psalms contains many of the songs and poems he wrote during his long and eventful career. In these writings David gives his personal views of many of the incidents that another writer records in the books of 1 and 2 Samuel (see PSALMS, BOOK OF).
Flight from Saul
Unsuccessful in his direct attacks on David, Saul tried to have him killed in battle. He promised that if David could kill one hundred Philistines, he would give his daughter Michal to David for a wife. David again succeeded and, through marrying Michal, became part of the royal family (1 Sam 18:20-29). But Saul’s jealousy resulted in further attempts to kill him (1 Sam 19:1,10-11; Ps 59). After seeking temporary shelter with Samuel at Ramah (1 Sam 19:18), David returned in secret to find out from Jonathan whether it was safe for him to enter Saul’s court. Upon discovering it was not, he obtained provisions from a priest at Nob and fled (1 Sam 20:1,12-14; 21:1-9). When the Philistine city of Gath proved an insecure refuge (1 Sam 21:10-15; Ps 34; 56), David found a good hiding place in a cave at Adullam. Here he was joined by his family along with several hundred others, who for various reasons were dissatisfied with Saul’s administration (1 Sam 22:1-2; Ps 57; 63; 142). From these people David built himself a strong fighting unit, which in later times became the central force of his royal army (1 Sam 22:2; 23:13; 1 Chron 11:10,15; 12:8-18). But as long as Saul was king, David never allowed his men to attack him (1 Sam 24:7; 26:9).
Saul’s pursuit drove David increasingly into the semi-barren regions of Judah. David was pleased to use his fighting force to rescue the town of Keilah from the raiding Philistines (1 Sam 23:4), but he was angry when the people of another Judean town, Ziph, betrayed him to Saul (1 Sam 23:19; Ps 54). On two occasions when he had an opportunity to kill Saul, he refused to (1 Sam 24:3-7; 26:5,9). David supported his small army by protecting farmers against the raiding Philistines and then demanding food supplies as payment (1 Sam 25:7- 8; 25:16,21). When one farmer refused to pay, David was saved from rash retaliation only by the quick thinking and wise words of the farmer’s wife, Abigail. When the farmer died, David married Abigail (1 Sam 25:39). Tired at the cruel pursuit by Saul and his Benjaminite supporters, David fell to the temptation to give up defending his righteousness. He decided to avoid further hardship by going and joining the enemy Philistines (1 Sam 26:19; 27:1-2; cf. Ps. 7; 11). From Philistia David enriched himself by carrying out brutal raids on neighbouring tribal people, though he repeatedly deceived the Philistine king concerning his activities. It was a disgraceful sixteen months David spent in Philistia, and, so far as we know, no psalm of his comes from this period (1 Sam 27:7-11). Only after his own camp was cruelly raided did David stop his ungodly behaviour and return to the Lord (1 Sam 30:1-7). At this time the Philistines had gone to battle against Israel. David and his men had set out with the Philistines, but the Philistine leaders sent them back. They feared that David’s men might betray them and fight for Israel (1 Sam 29:1-4). In the battle that followed, both Saul and Jonathan died (1 Sam 31:1-5), and David composed a song in memory of them (2 Sam 1:17-27).
Established as king
After Saul’s death there was confusion in Israel. David was declared king in Hebron, which was in the area of his own tribe Judah in the south, but one of Saul’s sons was declared king in the territory east of Jordan (2 Sam 2:3-4,8-9). After two years of conflict, the supporters of David overpowered their opponents. However, David executed the murderers of Saul’s son, to make it clear that he had no desire to gain Saul’s throne by murder (2 Sam 3:1; 4:9-12; cf. 1 :14-16). For the next five years David ruled from Hebron (2 Sam 5:3-5). Being deep in the territory of Judah to the south, Hebron was not a suitable place from which to rule all Israel. Therefore, in an attempt to ensure the allegiance of the northern tribes, David decided to make Jerusalem his capital. Jerusalem was on a well fortified hill and belonged to no tribe, for it had remained under the control of the enemy since the time of Joshua. David conquered Jerusalem and soon united all the tribes under his rule (2 Sam 5:5- 7,12).
David then set out to make Jerusalem the religious as well as the political centre of the nation. He brought the ark from the country house where it had sat neglected during Saul’s reign, and placed it in a special tent he had erected for it (2 Sam 6:2,17; cf. 1 Sam 7:1-2; 1 Chron 13:6). The conquest of Jerusalem and the arrival of the ark there are celebrated in some of David’s best known psalms (Ps 24; 68; 110). Further psalms show the ideals he aimed at in his government (2 Sam 23:1-7; Ps 101), and express his deep gratitude to God for all his gracious blessings (Ps 8; 103). When David expressed his desire to build God a permanent house (meaning a temple), Nathan the prophet told him that God had a better purpose, and that was to build David a permanent house (meaning a dynasty).
God had chosen David as the one through whose royal family he would bring the Messiah, the Saviour of the world (2 Sam 7:8-17; Ps 2:7-9; 89:19-37; Matt 22:42; Luke 1:68-70; Acts 13:22-23). As David’s military victories continued, Israel’s power grew, showing that God was strengthening David’s throne according to his promise. David’s power spread beyond the borders of Israel, so that he dominated all the neighbouring peoples, from the Nile River and the Red Sea in the south to the Euphrates River in the north (2 Sam 8:1-18; cf. Ps 18). Unfortunately, pride in his expanding power prompted David to carry out a census. He knew he deserved God’s punishment, but asked that it be mixed with mercy (2 Sam 24:10,14; cf. Ps 32). David’s military conquests had involved him in much bloodshed. Therefore, although God granted David’s request for a temple, he considered that he was not a fit person to build it (1 Chron 28:3,6). That privilege was given to David’s son, Solomon, though David helped him by preparing plans and setting aside money and materials for its completion (1 Chron 22:2-6; 28:11).
Family troubles
When he was at the height of his power, David committed a series of deliberate sins that affected the rest of his life. His sexual desire for Bathsheba led him to adultery and murder, as a result of which God assured him that his own family would be torn apart through adultery and murder (2 Sam 12:7-12). David confessed his sin and God in his mercy forgave him (2 Sam 12:13-14; Ps 51), but that did not remove the suffering and distress that David had brought upon himself and his family. David’s example of adultery and murder was followed in the family. One of the sons raped his sister, only to be murdered by another of the sons (2 Sam 13:11-14,28-29). The murderer, Absalom, fled into exile. Three years later he returned to Jerusalem, but a further two years passed before David allowed him back into the palace (2 Sam 13:38; 14:24,28,33).
Over the next four years Absalom strengthened his position, till he was able to launch a surprise rebellion. David was forced to flee Jerusalem, and Absalom seized the throne (2 Sam 15:1-7,14; Ps 3). In the battle that followed, Absalom was killed, in spite of David’s instructions that no harm be done to him (2 Sam 18:5,14). Only after the people had shown they wanted David back as their king did he return to Jerusalem (2 Sam 19:9-15). The peace of former times never returned to David’s throne. Soon he had to deal with another rebellion, this one led by a man called Sheba, who tried unsuccessfully to lead the northern tribes to break away from David (2 Sam 20:1,22). David’s closing years were saddened by conflict in the palace concerning which son would succeed him as king. His choice was Solomon, but the ambitious Adonijah tried to seize the throne for himself before David died. Again the rebellion failed. These stirring events gave the weak and aged David renewed strength, and with great haste he had Solomon anointed as the new king (1 Kings 1:5-8,16- 18,38-40). In due course he arranged a second anointing, this one public and with full regal ceremony, where he presented Solomon to the people as the divinely chosen successor (1 Chron 28:1-10; see ADONIJAH; SOLOMON).
Hope for the future
In spite of his failures, David was one of the greatest men that Israel produced. In the centuries that followed, when Israelites looked for the coming of the Messiah, the best example by which they could imagine an ideal king was that of David (Hosea 3:5). The Messiah was, as it were, a greater David (Ezek 34:23-24; 37:24-25). Being of David’s family, he was known as David’s son and he sat on David’s throne (Isa 9:7; Jer 23:5; 33:15; Matt 12:23; 20:31; 21:15; Luke 1:32; John 7:42). Yet he was also David’s Lord (Matt 22:42-45; cf. Ps 110:1).
As to his humanity, the Messiah Jesus was descended from David, but as to his divinity he was the eternal Son of God (Rom 1:3-4; Rev 22:16; see MESSIAH). Because many of David’s psalms celebrate his victories and express the ideals that he looked for in his kingdom, the New Testament sometimes quotes them in relation to the Messiah Jesus (cf. Ps 2 with Acts 4:25; 13:33-34; 1 Cor 15:24-25; Heb 1:5; 5:5; Rev 12:5; 19:15; cf. Ps 110 with Matt 22:42-45; Heb 7:15-17,21-22). Other psalms speak of David’s sufferings, and the New Testament quotes these also in relation to Jesus (cf. Ps 22 with Matt 27:39-43,46; John 19:24; Heb 2:12; cf. Ps 69 with Matt 27:34,38; John 2:17; 15:25; Rom 15:3). Not all David’s psalms, however, may be quoted as applying to Jesus, for many reflect David’s wrongdoings. The reader’s first consideration must be to consider the psalms in relation to the immediate circumstances about which David wrote (Ps 38:3; 41:4; 51:1-2). (For further details concerning the use of David’s psalms in the New Testament see PSALMS, BOOK OF.) According to the titles in the book of Psalms, David wrote 73 of the 150 in the collection. His poetry appears in 2 Samuel also (2 Sam 1:17-27; 3:33-34; 22:1-51; 23:1-7). His exceptional abilities as a musician and a poet were well known (1 Sam 16:17-18,23; 2 Sam 23:1). He used those abilities in organizing the services for the proposed temple and in setting up official groups of singers and musicians (1 Chron 6:31-32; 15:16-28; 16:7; Ezra 3:10; Neh 12:24,36,45-46). David served God faithfully in his own generation, and through his music and psalms has been of service to God’s people throughout succeeding generations (Acts 13:36).
DAY
People in Bible times used the word ‘day’ with a wide range of meanings, as we do today. They may have used it for the normal 24-hour day (Num 10:11; Acts 20:7), for the hours of daylight in contrast to the hours of night (Luke 18:7; John 9:4), for a particular time or occasion (Jer 12:3; 16:19; Luke 6:23), or for a more lengthy period such as an age or era (John 8:56; 2 Cor 6:2). In an age when there were no clocks as we know them today, people estimated the time of day according to the sun. Times were only approximate, for the number of hours of daylight varied throughout the year.
Usually people counted the hours according to a 12-hour division from sunrise to sunset. Therefore, if the approximate time of sunrise was 6 a.m. (Gen 32:21,24,31; Mark 16:2), the third hour would be about 9 a.m. (Mark 15:25; Acts 2:15), the sixth hour would be about noon (Mark 15:33; Acts 10:9), the ninth hour would be about 3 p.m. (Mark 15:33; Acts 3:1), and the twelfth hour would be about 6 p.m., or sunset (Mark 1:32; John 11:9; cf. Matt 20:3,5-6,12; see also SABBATH).
During the time of the Roman administration, the twelve hours of night were divided into four periods, or watches (Matt 14:25; Luke 12:38). In former times, the Jews divided the night into three watches (Exod 14:24; Judg 7:19). The contrast between day and night provided preachers with an obvious illustration to contrast good and evil. The present era is a night of moral darkness, in contrast to the day of light that will dawn at Christ’s return (Rom 13:11-13; 1 Thess 5:4-8). The return of Christ is the great day that will bring the world’s history to its climax (Phil 1:6,10; 2:16; Heb 10:25; see DAY OF THE LORD).
DAY OF ATONEMENT
Only one person, the Israelite high priest, could enter the Most Holy Place of the tabernacle, and he could do so only once a year, on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:2; Heb 9:7). This was a day that the Israelites observed as a national day of cleansing from sin. It fell on the tenth day of the seventh month, a few days before the Feast of Tabernacles (Lev 16:29-34; 23:27-34; see FEASTS). Rituals of the day Throughout the Israelite year, regular sacrificial rituals dealt with sin in various ways. But even the best of these did not enable the offerer, nor even the priests, to come into the sacred presence of God in the Most Holy Place.
Therefore, on this one day of the year, when entrance into God’s presence was available, the high priest brought all the people’s sins to God for his forgiveness. Before offering a sacrifice on behalf of others, the high priest had to offer a sacrifice for himself and his fellow priests. He offered the priests’ sin offering at the altar in the tabernacle courtyard, after which he took fire from the altar, along with blood from the sacrifice, into the tabernacle-tent. First he used the fire to burn incense in the Holy Place. Then, as he opened the curtain to enter the Most Holy Place, incense floated in and covered the mercy seat (lid of the ark, or covenant box), the symbolic throne of God. The high priest then sprinkled the blood of the slaughtered animal on and in front of the mercy seat (Lev 16:11-14). On returning to the open courtyard, the high priest repeated the ritual, this time offering the people’s sin offering (Lev 16:15-19).
The sprinkling of the blood on the mercy seat reminded Israelites that even at the climax of their highest religious exercise, they could still not demand forgiveness. They could only cast themselves upon the mercy of God. A second animal was then used in the people’s cleansing ritual, but it was not killed. The high priest laid his hands on the animal’s head, confessed over it the sins of the people, and sent it far away into the wilderness so that it could never return. This was a further picture to the people that their sins had been removed, though again at the expense of an innocent victim (Lev 16:8-10,20-22). When the sin-cleansing ritual was finished, the high priest washed himself thoroughly with water. He then offered burnt offerings of consecration, first for the priests and then for the people. At the end of the day’s activities, any others who had been in contact with the sin offering had also to wash themselves (Lev 16:23-28). (Concerning the different kinds of offerings in the Israelite sacrificial system see SACRIFICE.) Atonement through Christ The New Testament emphasizes that, although the Old Testament rituals were of benefit in showing people the seriousness of sin, they could not in themselves remove sin.
They were only a temporary arrangement. Now that Christ has come, they are of no further use (Heb 9:6-10). Jesus Christ, the great high priest, offered not an animal as a sacrifice; he offered himself. Through his sacrificial blood he has entered the presence of God, obtained eternal salvation, and cleansed the repentant sinner’s conscience (Heb 9:11-14). His one sacrifice has done what all the Israelite sacrifices could not do (Heb 10:11-12). Entrance into the presence of God, which was restricted under the Old Testament system, is now available to all God’s people through their high priest, Jesus Christ (Heb 10:19- 22; cf. 9:8). When the Israelite high priest had completed the sin-cleansing rituals in the tabernacle-tent, he reappeared to the people. Likewise Jesus Christ, having dealt with sin fully and having obtained eternal forgiveness for sins, will reappear to bring his people’s salvation to its glorious climax (Heb 9:12,28; see also BLOOD).
DAY OF THE LORD
Israelites of Old Testament times looked for the day when God would intervene in the affairs of the world, righting the wrongs and establishing his just rule on the earth. They called this divine intervention the day of the Lord (Isa 2:12-19; 13:6,9; Zeph 1:14-16; Zech 14:9).
Earlier ‘days of the Lord’
Although the day of the Lord was usually considered to be something terrifying, Israelites often looked forward to it. The reason for this was that they believed that God would punish Israel’s enemies and bring in Israel’s golden age (Jer 46:10; Zeph 3:16-20). They failed to realize, however, that in that day God would punish all sinners, Israelites included, and save all the faithful, regardless of national or social status (Joel 2:30-32; Amos 5:18; Mal 3:1-4; 4:1-3). Any catastrophic judgment, such as a flood, earthquake, locust plague, famine or war, could be called a day of the Lord (Joel 1:15-16; 2:1-2,11). But such a catastrophe was only a forerunner (and at the same time a guarantee) of the great and final day of the Lord (Joel 2:30-32; 3:14-18). Jesus Christ’s first coming was, in a sense, a day of the Lord, for through Christ God intervened in the affairs of the world to conquer Satan, deal with sin and proclaim his kingdom (Matt 3:11-12; 4:14-17; Acts 2:16-21; see KINGDOM OF GOD). The ‘last days’ had begun (Acts 2:17; 1 Cor 10:11; 2 Tim 3:1; Heb 1:2; 1 Peter 1:20; 1 John 2:18). They will reach their climax when Christ returns at the end of the age to purge the world of sin and bring his kingdom to its victorious completion (Isa 2:2-4; Matt 24:29-31; 25:31-32; 2 Peter 3:3-4,10).
The final great ‘day of the Lord’
Christ’s people have always suffered persecution, but before the final great day of the Lord that persecution will become more severe (Matt 24:5-14; John 16:33; 2 Thess 1:5-12; see PERSECUTION). The spirit of antichrist, which has always been in the world, will express itself in a final great rebellion against God. There will be all sorts of pressures, both subtle and open, to force Christians to abandon their faith in Christ (Matt 24:15-24; 2 Thess 2:1-7; 1 John 2:18; see ANTICHRIST). In a series of devastating judgments, God will pour out his wrath upon a rebellious world (2 Thess 1:8; Rev 6:17; 14:9-11; 16:2). God will not pour out his wrath upon his own people; on the contrary he will protect them from it (Rev 7:1-3; 9:4; cf. Rom 5:9; 1 Thess 1:10; 5:9). But the rebels, instead of turning to God in repentance, will hate him and persecute his people even more (Rev 9:18,20-21; 11:7-10; 12:17; 16:9,21). The persecution will be so bitter that, for the sake of his people, God will shorten the day of his wrath. Although some believers will be killed for their faith in Christ, as far as God is concerned not one will be lost (Rev 6:9-11; 12:11-12; 20:4; cf. Matt 24:22; Luke 21:16-18). Christ’s return will be a day of judgment that will result in a separation between the wicked and the righteous. For one it will be a day of wrath, for the other a day of salvation (Matt 24:36-41; 25:32,46; Luke 21:27-28; Acts 24:15; Rom 2:5; Phil 1:6,10; 1 Thess 4:16-18; 2 Thess 1:5-8; Rev 22:12-15; see JUDGMENT; RESURRECTION). In every era the circumstances of Christians vary from nation to nation. Christians in any place at any time could belong to the last generation of humanity as we know it. Therefore, the Bible urges Christians of all nations and eras to be alert and ready at all times for the onset of the final day of the Lord and the return of Christ (Matt 24:42-44; Mark 13:32-37; 1 Thess 5:2-6; 2 Peter 3:10-12). However, no one knows when the end of the age will come, and Christians should not behave foolishly by thinking the world is about to come to an end (Matt 24:36; 2 Thess 2:1-2; 3:11-12). They must carry on with life normally, making long-term plans where necessary, yet remembering that God may intervene at any time (Luke 19:11-27; Acts 1:6-8; 1 Cor 15:5-7; Phil 1:9-10; 1 Thess 5:6,11,14).
DEACON
In the early days of the Jerusalem church, Christians shared their food and possessions so that all in the church had enough for their day-to-day needs. At first the apostles administered this daily welfare, but as the church numbers increased, new arrangements became necessary. To give the apostles more time for prayer and teaching, the church chose seven men whom the apostles appointed over the work. The words used to denote these men and their work were all related to diakonos, the common Greek word for servant or minister. It may be translated ‘deacon’ (Acts 6:1-6; cf. Rom 12:7; 2 Cor 11:8; Eph 6:21; Phil 1:1; Col 4:17; 1 Tim 3:8). As the early churches grew in number and size, they saw an increasing need to organize their affairs properly. In time the common practice was for a church to have a group of people called deacons who had certain responsibilities in the church. The word diakonos had such a broad meaning and usage that the Bible nowhere attempts to define the role and duties of deacons. The deacons were, however, distinct from the elders (GNB: leaders) (Phil 1:1; 1 Tim 3:1,8; see ELDER).
Deacons had responsibility for a variety of ministries, but not the ministry of pastoral care and church leadership (cf. Acts 6:3-4; Rom 12:6-8). Nevertheless, the story of the early Jerusalem church shows that a deacon’s service is not limited to routine or welfare activities. Two of the seven administrators were also very useful preachers (Acts 6:5,8- 10; 8:5). Other examples show that the church needs women deacons as well as men (Rom 16:1-2; 1 Tim 3:11; cf. Luke 8:1-3; 1 Tim 5:10). Deacons must be spiritual people, for right attitudes are necessary even in organizing practical affairs (Acts 6:3). It is therefore important to check the character, behaviour and ability of people before appointing them deacons (1 Tim 3:10). Their lives must be blameless, whether in the sphere of family, church or society (1 Tim 3:8-13). The case of the early Jerusalem church suggests a procedure for the appointment of deacons. The church elders invite the church members to select those they think suitable, then the elders, after due consideration, make the appointment (Acts 6:3). All must realize, however, that people can do the work of deacons properly only if the Holy Spirit has so gifted them, and only if he works through them (Rom 12:7; 1 Cor 12:4-7,11; 1 Peter 4:11).
DEAD SEA
One of Palestine’s most unusual geological features is the Dead Sea. It is part of a deep north-south valley that extends along the Jordan River as far as the Gulf of Aqabah (north-eastern arm of the Red Sea) to the south. The Dead Sea, which is the lowest part of this valley, has a water level approximately 400 metres below sea level. It is about seventy-five kilometres long and fifteen kilometres wide. People in ancient times gave it the names Salt Sea and Dead Sea because it was extremely salty and, so far as they could see, nothing could live in it (Num 34:12; Josh 3:16; cf. Ezek 47:8-9). (See also PALESTINE, subheading ‘Jordan Valley and Dead Sea’.)
DEATH
The Bible teaches that human death is a result of sin (Gen 2:17; Rom 5:12). God does not desire death for those he created in his image. Death is therefore the enemy of God as well as the enemy of the human race (1 Cor 15:26; Heb 2:15).
Results of Adam’s sin
Physical and spiritual death are not completely separate. When sin entered the world through Adam, it changed everything. All human life is now affected by the certainty of death (Rom 5:12-17). This involves physical death and spiritual death. The truth of this is demonstrated by the fact that the work of Christ, which reverses the effects of sin, brings the gift of spiritual life now (Rom 6:23) and in the end will bring victory even over physical death (1 Cor 15:21-22,44-45). Some may think that since human beings are creatures of the natural world, physical death is inevitable. After all, death was apparently part of the world of nature before Adam sinned – leaves fell off trees, fruit was picked, and animals lived by eating other forms of life (Gen 2:15-16; 3:1). But it is not death in general that is the result of Adam’s sin; it is human death. The truth that the Bible emphasizes is that human beings are not merely creatures of the natural world like the other animals.
They are related to God in a way that makes them different from all other created things. They are unique, for they are made in God’s image (Gen 1:27). If physical death were merely the end of existence, people would have no need to fear it. The reason they fear it is their awareness that, when they die, they do not escape the consequences of his sin, but go to face them (Heb 9:27; see also SHEOL). It has been suggested that, before Adam and Eve sinned, the spiritual life within them was so dominant that it prevented the natural physical deterioration that we today might expect. But when sin overcame them, it so changed human life that the spirit no longer had control over the body, and physical deterioration resulted. Physical death was at the same time completely natural and completely the result of sin (Gen 3:19b). Physical effort and bodily functions that should have brought pleasure brought pain and hardship instead (Gen 3:16-19). There is no need to imagine the chaos of an over-populated world had human beings never sinned and no one ever died. It is death, not the termination of earthly existence, that is the enemy; and it is sin that makes death so hateful (1 Cor 15:26,55-56). There are examples to suggest that God could readily have brought a person’s earthly existence to an end without the person having to pass through death (Gen 5:24; 2 Kings 2:11; 1 Cor 15:51; Heb 11:5; cf. Acts 1:9).
Present experience; future victory
The Bible uses the picture of an evil ruler to denote both death and the devil. Death is a sphere in which the devil rules (Heb 2:15). All people, being sinners, are slaves of sin and therefore under its power (Rom 5:14). They are not free to decide whether they will die or not. Physically they are condemned to death, and spiritually they are dead already (Eph 2:1,5; Col 2:13; 1 John 3:14). They are so under the dominion of death that their tendency towards sin is itself called death (Rom 7:24; 8:6,10). Sin cannot exist without death as its consequences (Rom 6:16,21; 7:5,13; James 1:15). To continue in sin is to continue in death; for sinners are in the sphere of death till they are saved out of it (Rom 8:23; 1 Cor 15:54). Although this connection between sin and death may seem natural and inevitable, it can be broken. People are not the helpless victims of mechanical laws, but the subjects of divine compassion. The same God who sends death as sin’s penalty can give life as his gift (Rom 6:23). Through the death of Jesus Christ, God has completely dealt with sin and death. Jesus died in the place of sinners to take away their sin and deliver them from the sphere of death (Rom 6:9-10; 2 Cor 5:21; Heb 2:9,14; 1 Peter 2:24). Satan uses death to bind people in fear, but God uses death to release them from Satan’s power.
Christ came to conquer death, and he did this by means of his own death. All who by faith belong to Christ share the benefits of that death (Rom 6:3-8; 2 Cor 5:14; Col 2:12-15). All who refuse Christ die in their sins, and so ensure for themselves an unalterable destiny that the Bible calls eternal destruction, outer darkness, the lake of fire and the second death (Matt 8:12; 25:46; John 8:24; Rev 20:14; see HELL). Christ’s saving work means that believers need no longer fear death. They know that one day it will be destroyed (Rom 6:9; 1 Cor 15:26,54-57; Rev 2:11; 20:6; 21:4). Although they still live in the sphere of death’s influence, they have already passed out of death into life. They are free from the law of sin and death (John 5:24; Rom 8:2; 2 Tim 1:10; 1 John 3:14). Like other people, they may experience physical death, but they will never die in the sense that really matters (John 11:25-26; see HEAVEN).
DEBORAH
Two women named Deborah are mentioned in the Bible. The first of these was the maidservant of Rebekah who came with her from Paddan-aram when Rebekah married Isaac. She lived to a great age and died near Bethel (Gen 24:59; 35:8). The better known Deborah was a respected civil administrator in Israel during the era of the judges. She lived near the town of Bethel, where she gave decisions in cases brought to her for judgment. Being a prophetess, she was well suited to discern God’s will in difficult cases (Judg 4:4-5). She is chiefly remembered for directing Israel’s victory over the forces of Sisera in northern Palestine. (For map see JUDGES, BOOK OF.)
With her army general Barak, Deborah led a force of Israelite soldiers up Mt Tabor, with the aim of drawing out Sisera’s chariot forces into the plain of the Kishon River below (Judg 4:6-10). With prophetic insight, Deborah must have foreseen the outcome. There was a tremendous storm, the river flooded and, as Sisera’s chariots became bogged, the Israelites rushed down upon them and won a great victory. Many details of the event are given in the song of victory that Deborah composed to celebrate the occasion (Judg 4:12-16; 5:1-22).
DEBT
Because debts place a person under obligation to his creditors, Paul sometimes used the word ‘debt’ to refer to a person’s spiritual obligations. Paul considered that his obligation to preach the gospel was a debt he owed to people everywhere (Rom 1:14; 1 Cor 9:16). He believed also that Gentile Christians, having received the gospel by way of the Jews, owed a debt to their Jewish brothers. The Gentiles had an obligation to help the Jews in their poverty (Rom 15:27). More frequently, however, the Bible uses the illustration of debt to refer to something bad, such as sin in general (Matt 6:12; 18:32-35) or bondage to the sinful human nature (Rom 8:12). Debt in this sense is a reminder of the difficulties of life in the everyday world, where debts can easily bring a person to ruin. The poor can easily be exploited, and for this reason Israelite law aimed at protecting them from greedy moneylenders. (For details see LENDING.)
DECAPOLIS
The Romans gave the name Decapolis (meaning ‘ten cities’) to an extensive region situated largely south and east of the Sea of Galilee. Its inhabitants were mainly Gentiles. The New Testament mentions two of its localities, Gadara and Gerasa, and certain occasions on which Jesus visited the region. On one of these occasions Jesus healed a demon possessed man, though the incident brought him into conflict with local pig farmers (Matt 8:28; Mark 5:1,11-14; 7:31). Many of the people from the area joined the crowds that at one time followed Jesus (Matt 4:25).
DEDAN
Dedan was the name of a nomadic tribal group in northern Arabia. Their people were well known in Bible times as shrewd traders (Isa 21:13; Jer 49:8; Ezek 27:20; 38:13; see ARABIA).
DEDICATION
According to common usage, ‘dedication’ is another word for ‘consecration’. The two words refer to the act of setting apart people or things from the ordinary affairs of life and presenting them to God for his service (Exod 13:2,12; 29:1,22; Num 7:10-11; 1 Sam 1:11,24-28; 1 Kings 8:63; 1 Chron 26:26; Ezra 6:16-17; for details see CONSECRATION). The Jewish festival known as the Feast of Dedication celebrated the rededication of the Jewish temple after the defilement by Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century BC (John 10:22; for details see FEASTS).
DEFILEMENT
See UNCLEANNESS.
DEMONS
Both Old and New Testaments speak of the reality of the spirit world. Within this unseen world are spirit beings beyond number. They are commonly called angels, some of whom willingly serve God, though others have rebelled against him (Jude 6; see ANGELS). These rebellious, or fallen, angels are variously known as demons, evil spirits, spiritual hosts of wickedness, principalities, powers, rulers, authorities, evil spiritual forces, cosmic powers of evil, and angels of the devil. Their leader is Satan (Luke 10:17-18; Eph 6:12; Col 2:15; James 2:19; Rev 12:9; see SATAN).
In relation to the ministry of Jesus, demons are usually called unclean spirits (Matt 10:1,8; Mark 6:7,13; see UNCLEAN SPIRITS). Demons oppose God and are the spiritual force behind heathen religions and false gods (Deut 32:17; Ps 106:37; 1 Cor 10:19-20; Rev 9:20). Those who follow these religions usually fear demons, and often use magic and sorcery to resist demonic power. But God forbids magic and sorcery, for these things themselves involve cooperating with supernatural evil powers (Lev 19:26; 20:6; Gal 5:20; Rev 9:20-21; 21:8; see MAGIC). The only dealing Jesus would have with demons was one of total condemnation. He brought God’s judgment upon them and freed demonized people from their power (Mark 1:27; Luke 8:2; 13:32; Acts 10:38). Jesus’ power over demons was a sign that the kingdom of God had come (Matt 12:28; see KINGDOM OF GOD).
He gave his followers the power to cast out demons (Matt 10:1,8; Luke 10:17-18; Acts 16:16- 18), and the ability to see whether prophets in the church were speaking through the influence of demons or the influence of God’s Spirit (1 Cor 12:3,10; 1 Tim 4:1; 1 John 4:1-3). Not all demonic activity is spectacular. Demons are busy in every sphere of human life and readily work through the normal activities of human nature and human society (2 Cor 11:14-15; Eph 2:2-3; 6:12; James 3:15). Christians should be aware of their evil purposes, but should not fear them. Christ has conquered them by his death and resurrection, and Christians can claim that conquest for themselves (Col 2:8-10,15; cf. Rom 8:38-39; Eph 1:18-21). The final demonstration of the conquest of demons will be at the last judgment, when God’s punishment will remove them from human society for ever and send them to a place of fitting punishment (Matt 8:29; 25:41; Jude 6).
DENIAL
The New Testament speaks of two forms of denial, one bad, the other good. Denial in the bad sense has to do with openly disowning or rejecting God. People deny God by declaring publicly that they do not belong to him (Matt 10:33; 26:70-72; Acts 3:13-14; 2 Peter 2:1; 1 John 2:22-23; Jude 4; cf. Rev 2:13; 3:8). Wrong behaviour, even without words, can be a denial of the Christian faith (1 Tim 5:8; Titus 1:16). Some may deny Christ in a moment of weakness and, after genuine repentance, be forgiven (Luke 22:31- 34; John 21:15-17).
But those who reject God will be rejected by him (2 Tim 2:10-13; see APOSTACY). Denial in the good sense has to do with the rejection of selfishness. Believers ‘deny self’ for the sake of Christ by allowing their lives to be ruled by Christ instead of by themselves. They are controlled by Christ’s will, not by their own selfish desires. They promise to be obedient to Christ always, even if it should lead to death (Matt 16:24-26). Jesus was the supreme example of self-denial, and in his case self-denial led eventually to death (Phil 2:5-8). Believers, being united with Christ, deny themselves by giving up worldly attitudes and desires, and living disciplined, godly lives (2 Cor 4:2; Gal 2:20; 5:24; Col 3:5; Titus 2:12; see OBEDIENCE; SELFDISCIPLINE).
DERBE
Originally Derbe was part of the ancient kingdom of Lycaonia, but when Rome redivided Asia Minor, Derbe became part of the Roman province of Galatia (Acts 14:6; see GALATIA; LYCAONIA). Paul and Barnabas established a church in Derbe on their first missionary journey (Acts 14:20-21), and Paul visited the church on his second and third journeys (Acts 16:1; 18:23). It was one of the churches that Paul wrote to in his letter to the Galatians.
DISCIPLE
During the lifetime of Jesus there were many who considered themselves his disciples. That is, they followed him and listened to his words, as pupils might listen to a teacher. Although these people may have thought Jesus to be the Messiah, many of them had a wrong understanding of the sort of person the Messiah would be. They expected him to be a political leader who would free the Jews from Roman domination and bring in the golden age (John 6:14-15,60-64). When they found that Jesus was not this kind of leader, they withdrew from him (John 6:66-68). Yet there were many, probably hundreds, who were true believers, true disciples (Luke 6:17,20). From these, Jesus chose twelve whom he appointed apostles (Luke 6:13; see APOSTLE).
These twelve were Jesus’ disciples in a special sense, and became known as ‘the twelve disciples’ or simply ‘the disciples’ (Matt 16:13; 20:17; 24:3; 26:17). After the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, all the followers of Jesus became known as disciples (Acts 1:15; 6:1; 9:1), and later as Christians (Acts 11:26; 1 Peter 4:16; see CHRISTIAN).
The cost of discipleship
Jesus pointed out that those who want to become his disciples (whether in his day or in ours) have to accept his lordship in their lives. He may require them to give up their occupations, friends, possessions or status for his sake. On the other hand, he may not. The fact is that every disciple must be prepared to give up such things, should Jesus so direct. Usually Jesus will require different people to make different sacrifices, depending on who they are and what work he wants them to do. But always there will be some sacrifice. Self-denial is the only way to discipleship of Jesus Christ (Mark 1:16-20; 8:34-38; 10:17-22,28- 30; Luke 14:33; Phil 2:3-8; see DENIAL). Just as Jesus carried his cross to the place of his crucifixion, so each of his followers has to take up his or her cross and be prepared to die for Jesus’ sake (Matt 16:24-26; cf. John 19:17-18). Even if the Christian’s discipleship does not lead to death, it will involve a certain amount of hardship, suffering and persecution (Matt 10:24-25; 24:9; John 15:20).
People therefore must consider beforehand what it will cost them to be Jesus’ disciples. They must be prepared for a lifetime of commitment to him. There is no place for those who make a start and then give up (Luke 14:26-33;). Disciples must be ready to accept physical inconvenience (Luke 9:57-58), to put their responsibilities to Christ before all other responsibilities (Luke 9:59-60) and to be wholehearted in their devotion to Christ (Luke 9:61-62).
Characteristics of the true disciple
A disciple is a learner, and the disciples of Jesus learn from him (Matt 11:29; Eph 4:20). But merely to learn is not enough. They must put their learning into practice and maintain a consistent obedience if they are truly to be Jesus’ disciples (John 8:31).
They give visible proof that they are Jesus’ disciples through practising genuine love towards each other and through bearing spiritual fruit in their lives (John 13:13-15,35; 15:8). This practical love extends beyond the group of fellow disciples to all people everywhere (Matt 5:44- 46). Jesus’ disciples are therefore to take his message to others in order to make more disciples, no matter who the people are or where they live (Matt 28:19-20; see MISSION).
DISCIPLINE
See CHASTISEMENT; SELF-DISCIPLINE.
DISEASE
Sickness and disease are among the results of sin that entered the human race when Adam sinned (Gen 3:16-19). Jesus’ healing of disease was one evidence that the kingdom of God had come and that Jesus had power over all the evil effects of sin (Matt 4:23; 8:17; 9:35; 12:28). The age to come will see the complete removal of all sickness and disease (Rev 21:4; 22:2). At times God may use sickness to punish people for their sins (Num 12:1-10; 2 Kings 5:25-27; Ps 38:3-6; John 5:13-14; Acts 12:23). Other times he may use sickness to make them more reliant on his power and grace (2 Cor 12:7-10). In most cases, however, it is not possible to say why people suffer from sickness, disability or disease (John 9:1-3). The book of Job shows that no one should judge another with the accusation that the sufferer’s experience is because of personal sin (Job 42:7; see JOB; SUFFERING).
Among the diseases and disabilities that the Bible mentions are leprosy (2 Kings 7:3,8; Luke 17:12; see LEPROSY), epilepsy (Matt 4:24), dysentery (Acts 28:8), nervous disorders (1 Sam 16:14-23; Dan 4:33), deafness (Lev 19:14; Mark 7:32), dumbness (Mark 7:37; 9:25), blindness (2 Sam 5:8; Mark 10:46; John 9:1), paralysis (John 5:4; Acts 9:33), bone deformities (Luke 5:18; 6:6; 13:11), boils (1 Sam 5:6; Isa 38:21), dropsy (Luke 14:2) and various fevers (Mark 1:30; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). (Concerning the connection between demon possession and certain diseases see UNCLEAN SPIRITS.) The Israelite laws governing cleansing, foods and diseases provided a standard of hygiene that helped protect people from many harmful diseases (see UNCLEANNESS). Nevertheless, some sickness was inevitable. At a time when the knowledge and facilities of modern medicine were not available, physicians and common people alike used whatever skills they had (Gen 50:2; Jer 8:22; Mark 5:26) and whatever treatments were available to them (2 Kings 20:7; Jer 46:11; Luke 10:34; 1 Tim 5:23). Many of the non-Israelite physicians were actually sorcerers (2 Chron 16:12; see MAGIC).
DISPERSION
During the centuries immediately before the New Testament era, Jews had become widely scattered across western Asia, eastern Europe and northern Africa. Some of these were descendants of people who had been taken captive to foreign lands by Assyria, Babylon and other invaders of Palestine. Some had fled as refugees in times of persecution; others had moved to different places in search of trade. All these people were known as ‘Jews of the Dispersion’ or ‘the scattered Jews’ (John 7:35; James 1:1; 1 Peter 1:1). By New Testament times many of these Jews had lived in foreign countries so long that they had little or no knowledge of Palestinian languages such as Hebrew and Aramaic. Instead they spoke Greek, the common language of the Roman Empire, and so became known as Hellenists (from the word hellas, meaning ‘Greece’). At the same time they maintained their Jewish identity through keeping the Jewish law. Wherever they lived they built synagogues (Acts 13:5,14; 17:1,10; 18:1-4) and kept the traditions of their ancestors. Usually they went to Jerusalem for the more important ceremonies and festivals (Acts 2:1,5; 21:27-29).
DIVORCE
God’s plan for marriage was that it be a permanent union between one man and one woman – a union broken only by death. Divorce was something God hated (Gen 2:24; Mal 2:16; Matt 19:3-6; Rom 7:2-4). From earliest times, however, people on the whole rejected God, and polygamy and divorce became common practices (Gen 6:1-8; Rom 1:20-27; see MARRIAGE).
Examples from Bible times
Among the Israelites of Moses’ time, marriage disorders had become so widespread that Moses set out special laws designed to deal with the problem. In particular he wanted to stop easy divorce and protect women from unjust treatment. For instance, if a man tried to find an excuse for divorcing his wife by accusing her (falsely) of sexual immorality before marriage, he was fined for his cruel accusation and prevented from divorcing her (Deut 22:13-19). He could divorce her only if there was a valid reason, and only if he gave her divorce documents that protected her rights should she want to marry someone else.
He could not take her back if he later changed his mind, and she could not go back to him if her second marriage came to an end (Deut 24:1-4). Moses’ decision to permit divorce in certain circumstances was not because he approved of divorce. Rather he was trying to reduce divorce and restore some moral order to society. When Jews of later times quoted Moses’ law as approval for divorce, Jesus referred them back to God’s original standard. According to that standard, to divorce and remarry was adultery (Mark 10:2-12; Luke 16:18; 1 Cor 7:10- 11). The only exception that Jesus allowed was the case where a person’s adultery was already destroying the marriage (Matt 5:31-32; 19:3-9; see ADULTERY; FORNICATION). A difficult situation arose in New Testament times when one partner in a non-Christian marriage later became a Christian.
The Christian was not to divorce the non-Christian partner, but was to do everything possible to make the marriage work harmoniously. If the non-Christian partner was not willing to continue the marriage and departed, the Christian partner had to let it be so and consider the marriage at an end. The statement that in such cases the Christian partner was ‘no longer bound’ seems to mean that he or she was free to remarry (1 Cor 7:12-15).
A universal problem
In any society where there is a widespread breakdown of marriage, the result will be an increasing number of social and family problems. The Creator knows what is best for his creatures, and where people reject the plan he has laid down, they will have troubles (cf. Deut 10:13). There is often no clear-cut solution to the complications that arise because of divorce and remarriage. In some cases, no matter what is done, some ideal will be broken. Moses accepted less than the best because of the people’s ‘hardness of heart’, which suggests that the right course of action may at times mean choosing the lesser of two evils (Matt 19:8). Repentant sinners can receive God’s merciful forgiveness for divorce and adultery as they can for other sins (2 Sam 12:13; Ps 51:1-19; 145:14; Isa 43:25). Whatever people might have been guilty of previously, when God forgives them the church must also forgive them (1 Cor 6:9-11; cf. Matt 6:14-15). Although Christians must, like Jesus, uphold God’s standards when others want to destroy them (Matt 19:3-9), they must also, like Jesus, give help to those who, having broken God’s law, are later repentant (Luke 7:36-50; John 8:1-11; cf. Hosea 14:4).
DREAM
In everyday life, dreams are often related to matters that a person has been engaged in or been thinking about, and usually have no religious significance (Eccles 5:3). But the Bible records exceptional cases, where dreams did have religious significance. In circumstances where people had no written Word of God to guide them, or where God had an urgent message to pass on, he sometimes spoke to people directly through dreams (Gen 20:3; 31:24; 46:2-4; 1 Kings 3:5; Matt 1:20-24; 2:12). Dreams may have had meaning even when God did not speak directly, though these were rare (Gen 37:5-11). Among people who did not know God, a dream with meaning usually required a person who knew God to interpret it (Gen 40:9-19; 41:1-32; Dan. 2:1-45; 4:4-27). Among God’s people, a dream with meaning usually had a fairly obvious interpretation (Gen 37:5-10; 1 Kings 3:6-9; Acts 16:9-10). Moses warned people to be careful in believing those who claimed that God had spoken to them through dreams. Such people were often false prophets, who led others astray (Deut 13:1-3; Jer 23:25,32). Moses was well aware that sometimes God may have spoken to the true prophets through dreams, but the Bible writers usually spoke of such experiences as visions rather than dreams (Num 12:6; see VISION).
DRESS
Styles of clothing varied among the different classes of people in Israel, and were often a means of showing a person’s status (Gen 37:3; Josh 9:5; 2 Sam 13:18; Isa 3:18-23; Luke 16:19). Ceremonial clothing worn by people in high positions was often richly embroidered, sometimes with gold thread woven into the cloth (Exod 28:4,6,8,15; 39:3; Ps 45:13). There were special garments for special occasions such as weddings and feasts (Isa 61:10; Matt 22:11; Luke 15:22; Rev 19:8; see ORNAMENTS).
Practices that showed immoral tendencies, such as dressing in clothes of the opposite sex (transvestism), were forbidden (Deut 22:5). From earliest times people used cosmetics and perfumes. Some of these developed from what were originally ointments. Most cosmetics were prepared from spices and vegetable oils, though some facial cosmetics were made from minerals (2 Kings 9:30; Jer 4:30; Ezek 23:40; see OIL; SPICES).
To express distress or mourning, people often tore their clothes, dressed in sackcloth, or put on cosmetics that made them look extra miserable (Gen 37:34; 2 Sam 3:31; 1 Kings 21:27; Job 1:20; Isa 58:3,5; Matt 5:16-18; 26:65; Acts 14:14; see SACKCLOTH). People taken captive were often humiliated by being made to walk barefoot or naked (Isa 20:4). The Bible condemns the practice of making distinctions in the church through favouring those who are well dressed above those who are poorly dressed (James 2:2-5). It discourages God’s people from dressing extravagantly, and emphasizes that good conduct is more desirable than lavish dress (Jer 4:30; Luke 20:46-47; 1 Tim 2:8-10; 1 Peter 3:3-5; cf. Col 3:9-10).