FAITH
In the original language of the New Testament, the noun ‘faith’ and the verb ‘believe’ are different parts of the same word. Although faith involves belief, by far the most important characteristic of faith (in the biblical sense) is reliance, or trust. To have faith in a person or thing is to rely wholly on that person or thing, and not to rely on oneself. The Bible usually speaks of faith in relation to people’s trust in, or dependence on, God and his works. This dependence may concern aspects of physical life such as God’s provision of food, health, protection from harm and victory over enemies (Ps 22:4-5; 37:3-4; 46:1-3; Matt 6:30-33; Heb 11:33-35), but above all it concerns aspects of spiritual life such as God’s provision of salvation and eternal life (Ps 18:2; 40:4; 71:5; 73:26; Prov 3:5; Jer 17:7; John 3:16; Rom 1:16; 5:1).
Saved by faith.
Whether in the era before Christ or after, people have been saved only through faith in the sovereign God who in his mercy and grace forgives sin; and the basis on which God forgives sin is the death of Jesus Christ (Rom 3:24-26; 4:16,22-25; 2 Cor 4:13; Gal 3:11; see JUSTIFICATION; SACRIFICE). People can never be saved from sin, never be accepted by God, on the basis of their good works or their law-keeping. They can do nothing to deserve or win God’s favour (Rom 4:1-5; 9:30-32; 10:3-4). God saves people solely by his grace, and they receive this salvation by faith (Eph 2:8-9). Faith in itself does not save. It is simply the means by which the sinner accepts the salvation that God offers. God’s salvation is not a reward for faith; it is a gift that no one deserves, but any person can receive it by faith (Rom 3:25; 5:15). For example, if someone out of kindness decides to give a friend a gift, the friend must accept that gift in order to own it. But the gift is given freely; it is not a reward for the friend’s act of acceptance. Again, faith is not something a person can boast about. There is no merit in faith. All the merit lies in the object of faith, God, who through Jesus Christ has become the Saviour of sinners (John 3:16,18; 7:31; 17:20; Acts 20:21; 1 John 5:12-13). Consider another example. If a sailor in a sinking ship jumps into a lifeboat, that lifeboat means everything to the sailor. His faith in jumping into it, far from being an act of merit, is an admission of helplessness. The lifeboat, the object of faith, is what takes the sailor to safety. Faith in God is not effort, but the ceasing of effort. It is not doing, but relying on what Christ has done. It is an attitude whereby guilty sinners gives up their own efforts to win salvation, no matter how good they be, and completely trust in Christ, and in him alone, for their salvation (Acts 16:30-31; Gal 2:16). Without such an attitude, no person can receive God’s salvation (Heb 11:6a). The faith by which people receive salvation is not merely an acknowledgment of certain facts (though this is necessary, since believers must know who and what they are trusting in; John 2:22; 3:12; 6:69; 8:24-25; Rom 10:9-10; Heb 11:6b; 1 John 5:20). Rather it is a belief by which believers commit themselves wholly to Christ in complete dependence. It is not just accepting certain things as true (for even God’s enemies may have that sort of belief; James 2:19), but trusting in a person, Jesus Christ. Some may say they have a general faith in God, but if they refuse to have specific faith in Jesus Christ, their ‘faith’ is a form of self-deception (John 5:24; 14:6; 1 John 2:23). So basic is faith to Christianity, that the New Testament uses the name ‘believers’ as another name for Christians (Acts 5:14; Rom 3:26; 1 Tim 4:12). Likewise it uses ‘the faith’ as another name for Christianity (1 Tim 5:8; 6:10,21).
Living by faith
Christians are not only saved by faith, they live by faith. They continue to rely on the promise and power of the unseen God rather than on what they see and experience in the visible world (1 Cor 2:5; 2 Cor 5:6-7; Col 1:23; 2:7; Heb 11:1). Their lives are lived in constant dependence on God. Christ has borne the penalty of sin on their behalf and now lives within them. Only as they trust in his power can they experience in practice the victory, peace and joy that their salvation has brought (Gal 2:20; 5:6; Eph 1:19). The strength of the faith by which they live depends largely on the strength of their personal relationship with Jesus Christ (Rom 14:1; 2 Thess 1:3; 2 Peter 1:5-8; 3:18). A professed faith that does not produce a change for the better in a person’s behaviour is not true faith; it is not a faith that leads to salvation. Those who have genuine faith will give clear proof of it by their good conduct (Gal 5:6; 1 Tim 5:8; James 2:18-26). Sometimes the Bible speaks of faith in the special sense of trust in God to do something unusual or supernatural (Matt 9:22,28; 17:19-20; Mark 2:5; 9:23; Luke 7:9; 8:25; James 5:14-15; see DISEASE; MIRACLES; PRAYER). To some Christians God gives a gift of special faith that enables them to do what otherwise they could not do (Rom 12:3,6; 1 Cor 12:9; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT).
FALL
See SIN.
FAMILY
According to God’s plan for human life, people do not exist in isolation but as part of a vast society, and they are fitted for their part in that society by being brought up in families (Eph 3:14-15; 1 Tim 3:4). Stability, love and cooperation in the family will help produce similar qualities in society as a whole. (Concerning illustrations of the family in relation to Israel or the church see CHURCH; FATHER.)
Parents and children
With his ordering of human life, God has put it into the nature of people to exercise and accept authority. He has, for example, given parents authority over their children, and children naturally recognize that authority (Gen 22:7-8; Exod 20:12; Luke 2:51). The Bible warns parents against misusing their authority or treating their children unjustly. It also teaches children that they must respect and obey their parents (Eph 6:1-4; Col 3:20-21). This does not mean that the family is intended to function in an atmosphere of harsh authority. On the contrary it will function best where there is an atmosphere of self-sacrificing love (Titus 2:4; cf. 2 Cor 6:11-13; Eph 5:25). Parents who love their children will fulfil their duty to instruct and discipline them. They will not be able to do this, however, if they are ill-instructed or ill-disciplined themselves (Deut 11:18-19; 2 Sam 7:14-15; Prov 1:8; 13:1,24; 19:18; 29:17; Eph 6:4; 1 Tim 3:2-5; 5:14; Heb 12:7-11; see CHASTISEMENT). They must encourage open communication between themselves and their children (Deut 6:20-25; Josh 4:21-24). If parents act responsibly towards their children, they can expect to produce children who act responsibly (Prov 10:1,5; 22:6; 2 Tim 1:5). The training that produces this responsibility begins in the children’s infancy, is carried out primarily in the home, and is based on the Word of God (Deut 6:6-9; 2 Tim 3:14-15). The teaching that parents give their children must be supported by the example of right conduct in the parents’ lives (Rom 2:21-24; 1 Thess 2:10-12). Parents must practise and teach self-sacrifice for the sake of others, so that the family is a place where people learn how to love others, forgive others, honour others and serve others (Eph 4:31-32; cf. Matt 20:25-27; John 13:12-15).
Wider responsibilities
Parents must be careful that concern for the family’s well-being does not make them or their children self-centred. By practising hospitality and helping the needy, parents will encourage their children to have a generous attitude to those outside the family (Rom 12:13; 1 Tim 5:10; James 1:26-27; 1 John 3:17; see GOOD WORKS; HOSPITALITY). Such attitudes and conduct, besides benefiting others, will help those within the family develop godly character and produce a happy home (Ps 128:1-4). Responsibilities within the family concern more than just the parents and children. They extend beyond the immediate family to those of the former generation who may no longer be able to support themselves. Regardless of the help that may come from the government, the church, or other sources, Christians have a responsibility for the well-being of their aged parents (Mark 7:9-13; 1 Tim 5:4,8; see also WIDOW).
FARMING
Since the majority of Israelites were farmers, a common practice in Israel was to indicate times of the year by features of the agricultural seasons, rather than by names of the months. Using the twelve months of our calendar for comparison, we can summarize the agricultural year in Palestine as follows: Month Weather Agriculture January Cool Rain Sowing February Warmer Rain Almond blossom March Warmer Rain Citrus fruit harvest April Warmer Dry Barley harvest May Hot Dry Wheat harvest June Hot Dry First ripe figs July Hot Dry Grape harvest August Hot Dry Olive harvest September Hot Dry Dates, other fruits October Cooler Rain Ploughing time November Cooler Rain Winter figs December Cooler Rain Sowing Israel’s agricultural prosperity depended upon more than simply growing the right crops in the right seasons. The nation was in a special sense God’s people, and its devotion to God was a basic factor that influenced seasonal conditions (Deut 11:8-17). Also, the annual religious festivals were related to the harvest seasons (Lev 23:10,14-15,39; see FEASTS; MONTH). In fact, the whole way of life in Israel was tied in with the annual agricultural cycle.
Ploughing and sowing
Like farmers elsewhere, Israelite farmers depended much upon the rain for the success of their crops. After the six months dry season, at the end of which all the harvesting for the year was over, the farmers awaited the coming of the rains. The ground was by now hard and dry, and had to be ploughed and broken up in preparation for the sowing of new crops (Exod 34:21; Jer 4:3). Farmers normally ploughed with oxen, urging the animals on with a sharpened stick called a goad (Deut 22:10; Judg 3:31; 1 Kings 19:19; Luke 9:62; 14:19; see also YOKE). Ploughs originally were made of wood, but later of iron (1 Sam 13:20). In hilly country where ploughing was difficult, farmers dug the ground by hand, using a hoe (Isa 7:25). The rains that marked the arrival of the rainy season were known as the early, or autumn, rains (Deut 11:14; Jer 5:24; Joel 2:23) and were necessary for the sowing of the fields that followed (Gen 26:12; Matt 13:3). Rain fell irregularly throughout the cool season, helping the crops to grow. But the rains that farmers most eagerly looked for were the later, or spring, rains. These were necessary to bring the cereal crops to full growth before the dry season arrived (Deut 11:14; Prov 16:15; Jer 3:3; 5:24; Joel 2:23; Zech 10:1). Throughout the hot dry season that followed, farmers depended mainly on heavy dews to provide moisture for their crops (1 Kings 17:1; Isa 18:4; Zech 8:12; see WEATHER).
Cereal harvest
The first of the cereal crops to be harvested was the barley (Lev 23:10; Ruth 1:22; 2 Sam 21:9), and this was followed by the wheat (Lev 23:16-17; Judg 15:1). When harvesting, the farmer was not to reap to the borders of his field, and was not to go back over the field to gather any grain he had missed when reaping. He was to leave this for the poor (Lev 19:9; Deut 24:19; Ruth 2:2-7,17). Reapers cut the standing grain with a sickle (Deut 16:9; Mark 4:29), tied the stalks into sheaves (Gen 37:7; Deut 24:19), and then transported the sheaves either on animals or in carts to the threshing floor (Neh 13:15; Amos 2:13; Micah 4:12). The threshing floor was a hard flat piece of ground where oxen trampled the loosened sheaves so that the grain fell from the stalks. The oxen were allowed to eat from the pile of straw as they trampled it (Num 18:27; Deut 25:4; 1 Sam 23:1; Hosea 10:11; 1 Cor 9:9). Another method of threshing was to drag large wooden or metal implements called threshing sledges over the pile of loosened sheaves (1 Chron 21:23; Amos 1:3). The farmer then winnowed the grain, usually in the evenings when a soft breeze was blowing. Using a large fork, he threw the grain into the air so that the breeze blew away the chaff, while the grain itself fell to the earth (Ruth 3:2; Isa 30:24; Matt 3:12). He then sifted the grain in a sieve to remove impurities, before packing it into bags or baskets ready for household use (Amos 9:9; Luke 22:31). He burnt any dirty or useless straw, but stored the good straw away, to be used as food for animals (Judg 19:19; 1 Kings 4:28; Matt 3:12).
Fruit harvests
During the months that the farmers were reaping, threshing, winnowing and storing the cereal crops, the fruits were beginning to ripen. The first to ripen were the figs, which continued to bear fruit for about the next ten months (Num 13:20; see FIG). Next to be harvested were the grapes. Following the practice of the grain farmer, the vineyard keeper was not to go through his vineyard a second time to gather grapes he had missed when picking, but was to leave them for the poor (Lev 19:10). People ate grapes fresh or dried and used them to make a variety of wines (Num 6:3; 1 Sam 25:18; see GRAPES). After the grapes were the olives, which workers harvested by shaking or beating the tree so that the fruit fell to the ground. It was then collected in baskets (Deut 24:20; Isa 17:6; Amos 8:2; see OLIVE). Finally came the harvest of dates and other summer fruits, which marked the end of the agricultural season (Amos 8:1). The people were now well stocked with food for the winter months ahead. During these months the rains came and the farmers began preparing for the next annual cycle. (For details of other cereals, fruits and vegetables that the Israelites grew see FOOD.)
Flocks and herds
Only after the Israelites settled in Canaan did they became crop farmers and fruit growers. Before that, they and their forefathers had been mainly keepers of sheep and cattle. Abraham, Isaac and Jacob had moved around from place to place with their animals (Gen 13:1-7; 26:14-22; 33:13), the family of Jacob had kept flocks and herds in Egypt (Gen 47:1-6), and the people of Moses’ time had brought animals with them when they left Egypt for Canaan (Exod 12:38; Deut 8:11-14). Having settled in their new homeland, the Israelites continued to keep sheep and cattle. Some of the best regions for their animals were the grassy plains of Bashan and Gilead on the eastern side of the Jordan (Num 32:1,26,36; Deut 32:14; Ps 22:12; Micah 7:14). Israelites were not great eaters of meat. In general they ate only the meat of cattle, sheep and goats, and usually only in connection with religious sacrifices or on special occasions (Gen 18:7; 27:9; Lev 7:15; 1 Sam 25:18; 28:24; Luke 15:23,29). They kept cattle mainly for their milk, which provided an important part of the Israelite diet (Gen 18:7-8; 2 Sam 17:29; Isa 7:22). They kept sheep mainly for their wool, which they used to make clothing (Lev 13:47; Prov 27:26; see SHEEP). Goats, which could live in harsher country than sheep, were kept for their hair, which people wove into cloth, and for their milk (Exod 26:7; 1 Sam 19:13; Prov 27:27). Those who looked after animals usually became tough, hard people. Life for them was harsh and dangerous as they battled against the difficulties created by drought, heat, cold, wild animals and thieves (Gen 26:17-22; 31:39-40; Amos 3:12; John 10:12; see SHEPHERD).
Difficulties for farmers
No fences divided one farmer’s land from another’s, the borders being marked by huge stones called landmarks. Farmers sometimes lost their land because of the dishonesty and violence of others (Deut 19:14). Much of Palestine’s farming land was stony, and farmers had much hard work to do in digging up the stones before they could use the land for farming (Isa 5:2). They used most of the stones to make walls for sheep folds and vineyards, though in some cases they preferred to surround their vineyards with hedges (Num 22:24; Isa 5:5; Micah 2:12-13; Matt 21:33). But neither hedges nor stone walls could prevent thieving and violence (Matt 21:38-39; John 10:1). In addition to these dangers, farmers were exploited and oppressed by wealthy merchants and government officials (Amos 5:11; 8:4-6). As a result many of them became poor and even lost their houses and lands to ruthless money lenders (Amos 2:7-8; Micah 2:1-2; James 2:6; 5:4). Farmers had a constant battle also against natural enemies such as drought (1 Kings 17:7; Amos 4:7; Hag 1:11), locust plagues (Joel 1:4), hail storms (Hag 2:17), plant diseases (Amos 4:9) and hot winds from the desert that burnt up their crops (Isa 27:8; Jer 4:11; 13:24). Some of these difficulties may have come as judgments from God (Deut 28:1-24; see also SABBATICAL YEAR). One quality required in farmers, therefore, was patience amid the trials of life. Through hard work and perseverance they could expect in the end to enjoy the fruits of their work (2 Tim 2:6; James 5:7).
FASTING
Fasting was a common practice among Israelites in both Old and New Testament times. People went without food or drink for a period, usually for some religious purpose. It may have been to express sorrow (1 Sam 31:13; 1 Kings 21:27; Neh 1:4), repentance (1 Sam 7:6; Joel 2:12; Dan 9:3-4) or sincerity in prayer (2 Chron 20:3-4; Ezra 8:23).
The only official fast according to the Jewish law was the annual Day of Atonement (assuming that ‘to afflict yourselves’ means ‘to fast’; Lev 23:27). The Jews later introduced a series of fasts to mourn the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 587 BC (Zech 8:19). Because of the association of fasting with mourning, Jesus’ disciples did not fast while he was with them. That was a time of joy. They fasted only when he was taken from them and killed; but their sorrow was turned into joy at his resurrection (Luke 5:33-35). Both Old and New Testaments speak of those who fasted insincerely. Some people made a show of their fasting, thinking they were impressing others, and in particular impressing God; but they were only inviting God’s condemnation (Isa 58:3-5; Matt 6:16-18; Luke 18:12).
By contrast, God approved of true fasting, whether individual or collective, when it was combined with genuine prayer (Matt 4:1-4; Luke 2:37; Acts 13:2-3). The Bible gives no explanation of the practical purpose of fasting. Examples of fasting in the New Testament show that it accompanied prayer when people faced unusually difficult tasks or decisions, or met unusually strong opposition from Satan. The purpose of the fast may have been to separate them as much as possible from the common affairs of everyday life. This would enable them, without distraction, to concentrate all their spiritual powers on the important issues before them.
FATHER
A basic element in fatherhood is that it is related to origins, to bringing things into existence (Gen 17:5). Consequently, the Bible speaks about God as the Father of creation, for he is the source of all things (Num 16:22; Isa 64:8; Mal 2:10; Luke 3:38; Heb 12:9; James 1:17; see GOD). This is possibly one aspect of God’s fatherhood that Paul refers to when he points out that all fatherhood comes ultimately from God. Earthly fathers exist only because there is a heavenly Father (Eph 3:14-15). (For the responsibilities of fathers in human society see FAMILY.) People in Bible times used the word ‘father’ as a respectful way of referring to their ancestors (Ps 22:4; Heb 1:1; see ANCESTORS). They even used it to refer to their spiritual leaders, especially those who brought them to know God (2 Kings 6:21; 13:14; 1 Cor 4:14-15; 1 Tim 1:2,18; 1 Peter 5:13; cf. Matt 23:7-12). But the Bible’s most important use of ‘father’ is in relation to God.
Father of his people
When the Bible speaks of God’s fatherhood of his people, there is again a variety of meanings. In Old Testament times God was the Father of the nation Israel. He made Israel his people by covenant, and cared for them as a father cares for his children (Exod 4:22; Deut 1:31; 8:5; Hosea 11:1; Mal 1:6; John 8:41). In particular he was Father to the king of his chosen people, and more particularly still, of the Messiah, whom Israel’s king foreshadowed (2 Sam 7:14; Ps 2:7; cf. Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; see MESSIAH). In addition to all this, God was Father in a special sense to the true believers within the nation (Ps 103:13; Isa 63:16; Mal 3:17; John 8:42). The New Testament shows that God is Father to all who believe in him – not just Israelites, but believers of all nations (Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:2-3). All people, regardless of nationality, are dead in sin, but those who repent of their sin and believe in Jesus are ‘born again’. They receive new life from God and so become God’s children (John 1:12-13; Eph 2:1; see REGENERATION). To use another picture, God adopts them into his family and gives them the status and privileges of full-grown sons (Gal 4:4-6; see ADOPTION). Believers therefore can speak to God confidently as their Father (Matt 6:9; Luke 11:9-13; Rom 8:15-16; see ABBA; PRAYER). Yet they must also reverence him, for he is their judge (Matt 6:14-15; 1 Peter 1:17). God, on his part, cares for his children’s needs and makes them heirs of his inheritance (Matt 6:32; Luke 12:32; Rom 8:17), though he also chastises them when they do wrong (2 Sam 7:14-15; Heb 12:7- 11; see CHASTISEMENT). God’s children are to develop lives whose character is like that of their Father (Matt 5:48).
Father of Jesus
Christ The highest sense in which God is Father is as the Father of Jesus Christ (John 1:18; 5:36; Rom 15:6; 2 Cor 1:3). But his fatherhood of Jesus is different from his fatherhood of believers (cf. John 20:17). God did not make Jesus his Son as he makes believers his sons. Jesus always has been the Son of God. There is no suggestion that God the Father existed first and God the Son came into existence later. The Father and the Son, both being God, have existed eternally, but they have existed eternally in this relationship of Father and Son. Though distinct persons, they are inseparably united (John 10:30; 14:10; see SON OF GOD; TRINITY). As the Son, Jesus alone has true knowledge of the Father. Therefore, only through the Son is the Father revealed to the world, and only through the Son can the world come to know the Father (Matt 11:27; John 1:18; 5:18; 10:15; 14:6-7).
FEAR
People naturally fears those people, influences, objects and events that they see as threatening, as being able to control, overpower or destroy them (Num 14:9; Ps 2:11; Luke 21:26; Heb 2:15; 10:27). In some cases this may be a cowardly fear (Prov 29:25; Gal 2:12), but in others a very healthy fear, amounting to respect or reverence (Gen 20:11; Lev 26:2; Rom 3:18; 1 Peter 2:18). In this latter sense people are to fear those who have authority over them (Lev 19:3; Prov 24:21; Rom 13:3,7; Eph 6:5), and particularly to fear God (Ps 34:11; Isa 8:13-15; Acts 9:31; 1 Peter 2:17). Sinners have good reason to fear God; because God’s punishment will one day fall upon them (Micah 7:16-17; Matt 10:28). Believers also fear God, but theirs is a different sort of fear. Their fear of God is mixed with love for him (Deut 6:2,5; 1 Peter 1:8; 3:15). If believers obey God solely because they fear his punishment, such obedience displays an immature love. They should obey God because they love him (Deut 10:12; Rom 8:15; 1 John 4:17-18; 5:3). Nevertheless, believers’ love for God is not a substitute for reverence, nor does it excuse them from judgment. God still requires obedience and holiness. He is the almighty judge as well as the loving Father. Therefore, believers must have a healthy fear of him as well as a warm love for him (2 Cor 7:1; 1 Peter 1:16-17). Such an attitude guarantees God’s help in living a life that pleases him and benefits the believer personally (Ps 147:11; Prov 1:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:26; Phil 2:12-13). It also gives confidence not to fear the dangers and uncertainties of life (Ps 46:2; 112:1,7; Luke 12:4-5; 1 Peter 3:14-15).
FEASTS
Israelites were largely a farming people, and their religious festivals, or feasts, were built into the agricultural cycle (see FARMING). There were three main annual festivals: Passover-Unleavened Bread and Pentecost-Harvest at the beginning of the year, and Tabernacles-Ingatherings in the middle of the year. (For the Israelite calendar see MONTH.) On these three occasions all adult males had to go to the central place of worship, which was originally the tabernacle and later the temple (Exod 23:14-17). The Israelite festivals recalled the nation’s history, but they were also relevant to the people’s current experiences. Within the festivals there was a mixture of solemnity and joy, as the sinful people were humbled before their God yet thankful to him for his merciful salvation and constant provision (Lev 23:2,21; Deut 16:11-12). Passover and Unleavened Bread God decreed that the month during which the Israelites escaped from bondage in Egypt should be the first month of their religious year (Exod 12:2). (This Jewish month fits somewhere into the period of March-April on our calendar.) In the middle of the month the people kept the Passover, followed by the week-long Feast of Unleavened Bread (Lev 23:5-8; Mark 14:1). The Passover recalled God’s ‘passing over’ the houses of the Israelites when he killed the firstborn throughout Egypt (Exod 12:27). The accompanying Feast of Unleavened Bread recalled the people’s hasty departure from Egypt when they had to make their bread without leaven (yeast), cooking as they travelled in order to save time (Exod 12:8,34,39). (For details of the Passover rituals see PASSOVER.) Once the Israelites had settled in Canaan, the festival became an occasion to acknowledge God’s care in giving them their grain harvest. At Passover time the barley was ready for harvest, but before the people could reap it and use it for themselves, they had to acknowledge God as the giver. Therefore, on the third day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, they presented the first sheaf of reaped barley to God. They accompanied this with animal sacrifices that expressed confession, gratitude and dedication (Lev 23:10-14; Num 28:16-25).
Feast of Harvest (Pentecost)
After the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the people returned home and for the next six weeks were busy harvesting, first the barley and then the wheat. At the end of the wheat harvest they showed their thanks to God for their food by presenting to him two loaves of bread such as they would eat in their normal meals. Again there were additional sacrifices (Lev 23:15-21; Num 28:26-31). Since this festival fell on the fiftieth day after Passover, it later became known as the Feast of Pentecost (‘pentecost’ meaning ‘fifty’) (Acts 2:1; see PENTECOST). It was also known as the Feast of Weeks, being a week of weeks after the offering of the first barley sheaf (Deut 16:9-10). More commonly it was called the Feast of Harvest or Feast of Firstfruits.
Between the two festival seasons
After the cereal harvest there was much activity as the people threshed, winnowed and stored the grain. The hottest part of the year had now arrived, and over the next few months the figs, grapes, olives and dates ripened and were harvested. By the middle of the year, summer had almost gone, most farming activity was finished, and people began preparing for the mid-year festival season. On the first day of the seventh month (within the period of September-October on our calendar) the ceremonial blowing of trumpets called the people together for a special day of rest and worship (Lev 23:24-25). This was to prepare them for the solemn cleansing from sin that followed ten days later on the Day of Atonement (Lev 23:26-32; for details see DAY OF ATONEMENT).
Feast of Tabernacles (or Shelters)
Five days after the Day of Atonement was the Feast of Tabernacles. The name ‘tabernacle’ in this case does not refer to the Israelite place of worship, but to small shelters, or booths, made of tree branches and palm leaves. During the festival people lived in these shelters in remembrance of Israel’s years in the wilderness (Lev 23:34,39-43). The festival was also known as the Feast of Ingatherings, because it marked the end of the agricultural year, when all the produce of the land had been gathered in and the people rejoiced in thanksgiving before God (Lev 23:39; Deut 16:13-15). The number of sacrifices at this feast was greater than at any other, though the number decreased a little each day (Lev 23:36; Num 29:12-38). There are records of Israel’s celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles after Solomon’s completion of the temple and after the Jews’ return from captivity in Babylon (2 Chron 8:12-13; Ezra 3:4). They still celebrated it in the time of Jesus (John 7:2), and had introduced into it a water-pouring ceremony. Jesus referred to this ceremony when he addressed the people on the final day of the feast, offering to satisfy the spiritual needs of all who came to him for help (John 7:37-39).
Feast of Purim
The Feast of Purim was not one of the feasts appointed by God through Moses. It was established in Persia in the fifth century BC by Mordecai, a leader of the large community of Jews that had grown up in Persia after the Babylonian captivity. Haman, Persia’s chief minister, had gained the king’s approval for a plan to destroy the Jewish people. He determined the date to carry out his plan by casting lots, or purim (purim being the Hebrew plural of the Persian-Assyrian word pur, meaning ‘lot’) (Esther 3:7). In the end, however, Haman was executed and Mordecai made chief minister in his place. When Haman’s ‘lucky day’ arrived, the Jews, instead of being slaughtered, took revenge on their enemies (Esther 9:1). Mordecai then ordered that Jews celebrate the great occasion with feasting, exchanging gifts and giving to the poor (Esther 9:20-28; see ESTHER). Jews have celebrated the festival to the present day.
Feast of Dedication
During the second century BC, the Greek ruler of the Syrian sector of the Empire, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, used his military power to try to destroy the Jewish religion. In a brutal attack he invaded Jerusalem and slaughtered the Jews. He then defiled the Jewish temple by setting up an altar in honour of the pagan gods and sacrificing animals that the Jews considered unclean. A group of zealous Jews, the Maccabees, began a resistance movement against Antiochus, and after three years of untiring fighting won back their religious freedom (165 BC). They promptly cleansed and rededicated the temple, in celebration of which the Jews established the annual Feast of Dedication. It was the Jews’ only winter festival (John 10:22-23).
FELIX
As Roman governor of Judea from AD 52 to 60, Felix had some influence on Jewish affairs in Palestine. Early non-biblical records show that he was corrupt and cruel, characteristics that are well illustrated in the story about him in the Bible. After a riot by the Jews in Jerusalem, Paul was sent to Caesarea to be judged by Felix (Acts 23:26- 35). Felix knew the Jews well, for he had a Jewish wife (Acts 24:24). He also knew sufficient of Christianity to realize that Paul was innocent of the charges the Jews laid against him (Acts 23:29; 24:22). Yet he kept Paul imprisoned for two years, simply to please the Jews and so prevent any further unrest (Acts 24:23,27). He was interested to hear of Paul’s religious beliefs, and Paul could have gained his freedom had he paid the bribe Felix wanted (Acts 24:25-26). Paul refused to cooperate, so the heartless Felix left him in prison. In due course Felix returned to Rome, leaving the next governor to deal with the matter as best he could (Acts 24:27-25:5).
FELLOWSHIP
According to its basic biblical meaning, fellowship is concerned not with people enjoying each other’s company, but with people participating together in something. Fellowship is communion – having a share in something.
Fellowship ‘with’ means sharing ‘in’
An example of the biblical meaning of fellowship is the Lord’s Supper, or Holy Communion. The act of believers in eating bread and drinking wine in the Lord’s Supper is an act of fellowship with Christ, for it is a spiritual sharing in his body and blood. It is a participation in Christ and all that his sacrificial death means (1 Cor 10:16; see LORD’S SUPPER). By being united with Christ, believers share in him, have fellowship with him (1 Cor 1:9; Heb 3:14). Likewise they have fellowship with the Father (1 John 1:3) and with the Holy Spirit (2 Cor 13:14; Phil 1:21; Heb 6:4), for through faith in Christ they have become sharers in the divine nature (2 Peter 1:4). In all these cases the fellowship may involve only the individual believer and God. The believer has fellowship with God, regardless of whether joined by fellow believers. If others join, however, they collectively have fellowship with God. Therefore, when the Bible speaks of Christians having fellowship together, it means that together they have fellowship with God, not that they enjoy being with each other (1 John 1:3). But by having fellowship together with God, they will indeed be joined together in a true and happy union (John 17:21-22; 1 Cor 10:16-17). Sin spoils the believer’s fellowship with God. Those who think they can sin as they please and still have fellowship with God are deceiving themselves. By contrast those who live righteously will enjoy unbroken fellowship with God, because God in his grace cleanses the sins that they unknowingly commit (1 John 1:6-7). Fellowship with Christ means not only sharing in the blessings that come through his sacrificial death, but also sharing in the sufferings that he endured (Phil 3:10; 1 Peter 4:12-14; Rev 1:9). But if people have fellowship with him in his sufferings, they will also have fellowship with him in his glory (2 Tim 2:11-12; 1 Peter 5:1).
Sharing in a common possession
As Christians jointly participate in Christ, so this fellowship binds them together (Acts 2:42). There is therefore a sense in which they have fellowship with one another, but again this fellowship is usually in someone or something that they have as a common possession (Phil 1:7; Heb 3:14; 2 Peter 1:4). Their fellowship is a joint sharing in a common faith (Titus 1:4), in a common salvation (Jude 3) and even in their common sufferings (2 Cor 1:7; Rev 1:9). They share in the gospel by helping those who preach it (Phil 1:5; 4:14-18), and share in the financial support of poor Christians by giving money to help them (Rom 15:27; 2 Cor 8:4; 9:11). From this latter example ‘fellowship’ developed the more specialized meaning of ‘financial contribution’ (cf. Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 8:4; 9:13). There are certain things that Christians are not to have fellowship with, not to share in, not to participate in. They are not to identify with others in a way that signifies a sharing in the wrongdoings of such people (1 Tim 5:22; 2 John 10-11). Neither are they to share in marriage with non-believers (2 Cor 6:14-15) or in religious feasts where food has been offered to idols (1 Cor 10:20-21). They are to have no part, no share, in anything that is sinful (Eph 5:11; Rev 18:4).
FESTIVALS
See FEASTS.
FESTUS
During his short governorship of Judea (AD 60-62), Festus had to judge the difficult case of Paul. The Jews knew that Festus was inexperienced in Jewish affairs and tried to take advantage of this to win their case against Paul. But Festus was aware of their cunning (Acts 25:1-5). He therefore arranged a proper trial and as a result was convinced of Paul’s innocence. However, wanting to win the goodwill of the Jews, he refused to release Paul. Tired of this constant injustice, Paul appealed to the Emperor (Acts 25:6- 12). Festus now faced a difficulty. He had to send a person to the Emperor, without knowing the offence of which the person was supposedly guilty. He did not understand what made the Jews hate Paul. When Herod Agrippa, an expert on Jewish affairs, arrived at the governor’s palace, Festus explained his problem. He was pleased to give his visitor the opportunity to hear Paul’s case (Acts 25:23-27). Agrippa confirmed that Paul was innocent, but since Paul had appealed to the Emperor, Festus had no alternative but to send him to Rome (Acts 26:32).
FIG
Like olives and grapes, figs were plentiful in Israel and neighbouring countries (Deut 8:8; Judg 9:8- 13; Jer 5:17). The saying ‘to sit under one’s own vine and fig tree’ indicated the enjoyment of long-lasting peace, contentment and prosperity. On the other hand ‘to lay waste one’s vines and fig trees’ indicated devastation and ruin (1 Kings 4:25; 2 Kings 18:31; Hosea 2:12; Joel 1:7,12; Micah 4:4). The cultivation of fig trees required years of patient labour, and the failure of a harvest was a major calamity (Prov 27:18; Luke 13:7; cf. Ps 105:33; Hab 3:17). People ate figs either fresh or dried and often made them into cakes (1 Sam 25:18; 1 Chron 12:40; Nahum 3:12). They also believed that figs had some medicinal value (Isa 38:21). Healthy fig trees bore fruit for about ten months of the year, though they lost their leaves and grew new ones according to the season (Matt 24:32). Jesus on one occasion was disappointed when he found that a fig tree that should have had fruit on it (even though the season for picking the fruit had not yet arrived) had no fruit at all. He saw the fruitless tree as symbolic of Israel, a nation that was useless to God. It produced no spiritual fruit and would fall under God’s judgment (Mark 11:12-14; cf. Luke 13:6- 9).
FIRSTBORN
In ancient Israelite society the firstborn son had special rights that were highly valued. He was the head of the family in the father’s absence, and upon his father’s death he received an inheritance double that of the other sons (Gen 49:3; Deut 21:17). The firstborn could, however, lose his birthright, either by selling it or through misconduct (Gen 25:31-34; 1 Chron 5:1-2).
At the time of Israel’s escape from slavery in Egypt, God preserved the lives of the Israelites’ firstborn, both people and animals. From that time on, the firstborn of all Israelite families, and the firstborn of their flocks and herds, became God’s special possession (Exod 13:2). In the case of the firstborn of animals, the owner dedicated a clean animal to God by sacrifice. He dedicated an unclean animal by the sacrifice of a clean animal in its place (since an unclean animal could not be offered in sacrifice) (Exod 13:11-15; Num 18:17-18). In the case of people, the parents ceremonially presented their firstborn to God, and then bought the child back by a payment of money (Num 18:15-16; Luke 2:7,23).
For the service of the tabernacle, the Levites replaced the firstborn as God’s special servants (Num 3:11-13,45; cf. Exod 32:29). Because of the high status of the firstborn, the title developed a figurative usage. In Old Testament times, God considered the nation Israel to be his firstborn, his special people among all the nations of the world (Exod 4:22; cf. Deut 7:6; Hosea 11:1). In New Testament, times believers in Jesus Christ are God’s firstborn, his chosen and privileged ones (Heb 12:23). The Bible speaks of Jesus Christ as the firstborn of his Father. This does not mean that he came into existence later than his Father, but that he is head of the Father’s new people. He has authority over them, yet he graciously looks upon them as his brothers and sisters (Rom 8:29; Heb 1:6; 2:11-12). Jesus is also the firstborn of all creation. This means not that the Son of God was created, but that he existed before creation, has authority over it, and is its rightful heir (Col 1:15-17; Heb 1:2). Also, through his resurrection, he is the firstborn from the dead. He has authority over God’s new creation, the church, and guarantees its final victory (Col 1:18; Rev 1:5).
FIRSTFRUITS
According to Israelite law, the people had to present to God the first portion of the harvest, whether of grain or fruit, as an expression of thanks to him for the entire harvest (Exod 22:29; 23:19). This offering may have been in the form of a cake made from the cereal, or in the form of a basket of cereal or fruit (Num 15:17-21; Deut 26:2). In addition to the offerings of firstfruits by private individuals, there were offerings of firstfruits at Israel’s national festivals. These included the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Lev 23:10-11), the Feast of Harvest, or Pentecost (Lev 23:15-17), and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Ingatherings (Exod 23:16; Lev 23:39). (For details see FEASTS.) The firstfruit offerings became the property of the priests and so formed one source of their food supply (Num 18:12-13).
Since people had to present their firstfruits before they could use the remainder of the harvest for themselves, firstfruits had a symbolic meaning. They were a sign of hope, a guarantee of greater things to come. This is the meaning of the New Testament illustrations of firstfruits. The risen Christ is called the firstfruits of believers who have died, because his resurrection guarantees the resurrection of all believers (1 Cor 15:20,23). The Holy Spirit, whom believers have already, is the firstfruits, or guarantee, of future glory (Rom 8:23). Just as the firstfruits of the Israelites were the finest from their harvest, so God wants Christians to be the finest creatures in all his creation (James 1:18). Like the firstfruits, they belong especially to God (Rev 14:4). Paul sometimes spoke of the first people who became Christians in a locality as the firstfruits of the church in that place (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:15).
FLESH
Since flesh is an obvious feature of the human body, the word ‘flesh’ developed a figurative usage in relation to human life. This usage was not limited to the physical existence of human beings, for the life of human beings within the physical world is inseparable from their moral imperfection. Inevitably, ‘flesh’ developed new meanings in relation to certain spiritual characteristics that are shared by all people. Physical life Among the expressions that use ‘flesh’ in relation to the physical nature of human beings are ‘flesh and blood’, ‘flesh and bone’ and ‘flesh and heart’. These may mean no more than body, person, human life, the human race, or something similar (Gen 6:12; Job 2:5; Ps 73:26; 78:39; Luke 3:6; John 1:14; 8:15; 2 Cor 5:16; 12:7; Gal 1:16; Phil 1:22-24; Heb 2:14; 1 Peter 1:24). A man and a woman united in marriage become one flesh, and people related to each other share the same flesh (Gen 2:24; 29:14; Rom 1:3; 4:1; 9:3; see also BODY). On account of the usage of ‘flesh’ in reference to the physical aspect of human life, the word is sometimes contrasted with ‘spirit’, that inner and higher aspect of human life (Matt 26:41; 2 Cor 7:1; 1 Peter 3:18; see SPIRIT).
This physical life, however, has been corrupted through sin, and this gives ‘flesh’ its particular meaning in the writings of Paul. There it refers to sinful human nature (Rom 8:5; Eph 2:3). Sinful human nature The nature of men and women everywhere is infected by sin from birth. Adam, as the father and head of the human race, rebelled against God and corrupted human nature from the beginning. All human beings, because of their union with Adam, are born with this sinful nature (Ps 51:5; Rom 5:12; 7:18; see SIN). Human nature (the flesh) is directed and controlled by sin, and rebels against God’s law. It is incapable of being reformed and produces all the evil in the world. Like a deadly disease it cannot be cured, and leads only to moral decay and death (Rom 7:5; 8:6-8; Gal 6:8; Col 2:23). The evil results of the flesh affect every part of human life and activity (Gal 5:19-21; cf. Matt 7:18). Although Jesus was born with a human nature, his nature was not affected by sin. By living in complete obedience to God’s law, dying for sin and rising victoriously from the dead, he condemned the flesh, so that people might no longer be enslaved by it (Rom 8:3-4; Heb 2:14-15; 4:15). When sinners repent and trust in the saving power of Christ, they receive new life and freedom through the Spirit of Christ who comes to dwell within them. But the flesh is not destroyed.
Believers still lives in a world where everything, even their own nature, suffers from the effects of sin. The original sinful human nature remains with them till the end of their present earthly existence, but through Christ they are now free from its power (Rom 6:14,18; 8:1-2,10-12; see JUSTIFICATION). Therefore, there is a continual conflict in the lives of believers, the flesh fighting against the Spirit (Rom 8:5; Gal 5:17). Before they trusted in Christ and became indwelt by the Spirit, the flesh had ruled them as a cruel master. If, now that they are believers, they readily give in to the flesh, it will soon bring them under its power again. In view of this, they must ensure that their behaviour is controlled and directed by the Spirit (Rom 6:12-18; 8:4,13; 1 Cor 3:1-3; Gal 5:16). They have no obligation to the flesh; they owe it nothing. They must neither trust in it nor give it any opportunity to satisfy its evil desires (Rom 8:12; 13:14; Phil 3:3). Christ has condemned the old nature by his crucifixion (Rom 6:6; 8:3). Those who belong to Christ must accept this by faith and show it to be true by living according to the new nature (Rom 6:7-14; Gal 2:20; 5:24; Eph 4:22,24; Col 2:11; 3:5-10; see REGENERATION; SANCTIFICATION).
FLOOD
Rebellion against God was such a consistent and widespread characteristic of early human history that God announced he would destroy the rebels through a great flood (Gen 6:5-7,17). He would, however, preserve the godly man Noah and his family, and through them build a new people. God’s means of preserving Noah’s family, along with enough animals to repopulate the animal world, was through an ark that God told Noah to build (Gen 6:8-22; see Heb 11:7; 1 Peter 3:20; see ARK; NOAH). The natural causes God used to bring about the flood were twofold – forty days heavy rain combined with what seems to have been earthquake activity that sent the waters of the sea pouring into the Mesopotamian valley (Gen 7:11-12).
Even after the rain stopped and the earth settled, the flood waters took a long time to go down. Almost four months after the rain stopped, the ark came to rest in the Ararat range (Gen 8:3-4). Seven months later, grass and plants had grown sufficiently to allow Noah, his family and the animals to leave the ark and begin life afresh on the earth (Gen 8:14-19). It appears that the area affected by the flood was the region of the Bible’s story in the previous chapters. The information that Noah was able to obtain confirmed to him that the flood covered it all. (Expressions of universality such as ‘all the earth’, ‘everywhere’, ‘all people’, ‘everyone’, etc. are often used in the Bible with a purely local meaning, as they are today; cf. Gen 41:57; Deut 2:25; 1 Kings 4:34; 18:10; Dan 4:22; 5:19; John 1:4-5; Acts 2:5; 11:28; Col 1:23.) The important point of the flood story is that the flood was a total judgment on that ungodly world (except for Noah and his family), as God had warned (Gen 6:17). It is a reminder that, at the return of Jesus Christ, sudden judgment will again fall on an ungodly world, though again God will preserve the righteous (Matt 24:36-39; 2 Peter 2:5,9; cf. Gen 9:13-15; 2 Peter 3:5-7).
FLOWERS
Very few flowers are named in the Bible. The most commonly mentioned are those of the lily family (Song of Songs 2:16; 6:2; Hosea 14:5; Matt 6:28). A kind of wild rose is also mentioned (Song of Songs 2:1; Isa 35:1). The flower of the mandrake plant had a strong smell that people believed could excite sexual passion (Gen 30:14-16; Song of Songs 7:13). People have always seen beauty in flowers, and flower patterns were prominent in the decorations of the tabernacle and the temple (Exod 25:31-34; 1 Kings 6:18,29-35; 7:26,49). Although they are beautiful, flowers do not last long. Because of this the Bible sometimes refers to them as symbols of the brevity and impermanence of life (Job 14:2; Nahum 1:4; James 1:10-11; 1 Peter 1:24).
FOOD
All food has been given by God, and people are to show their gratitude by thanking God for it and enjoying it (Gen 1:29; Eccles 9:7; Matt 6:11; Acts 14:17; 1 Cor 10:30-31; 2 Cor 9:10; 1 Tim 4:4). Although food is necessary for physical life, human life is more than merely physical. People need more than food for the body. Their life depends for its proper function upon spiritual forces that are found only in God (Deut 8:3; Ps 63:1; Matt 4:3-4; 6:25; John 6:27,35). Just as people need to eat food if their physical life is to grow, so they need to feed on God’s Word if their spiritual life is to grow. As newborn children feed on milk, so new Christians feed their new life by learning the basics of Christian truth and practice. But children must move on to solid food if they are to grow towards adulthood. Likewise Christians must move on to a fuller understanding of God’s Word if they are to grow towards maturity (1 Cor 3:1-2; Heb 5:12-14; 1 Peter 2:3).
Correct attitudes
This concern that Christians have for spiritual food does not mean they can be indifferent to matters concerning food for the body. If people speak of having Christian faith but refuse to help the hungry, they are denying the Christian faith (Matt 25:42,44-45; Mark 6:33-44; James 2:14-17; 1 John 3:17). God taught Old Testament Israel that people were to make sacrifices in their business and domestic lives so that the poor would not go hungry (Lev 19:9-10; Deut 14:28-29; 15:7-11; Ps 132:15; Isa 14:30; 58:7). He teaches Christians similarly, emphasizing that they are to help all the hungry, even those who are their enemies (Luke 14:13; 16:19-25; Rom 12:20; cf. Luke 6:25,30). Israelite law detailed which foods were or were not allowable. One of the forbidden foods was blood, because of blood’s symbolic significance as representing life (Lev 17:14; see BLOOD). Other forbidden food was the meat of certain animals that Israelite law considered unclean (Lev 11:1-47; see UNCLEANNESS). Christians are not under these laws, and so are not restricted as the Israelites were (Mark 7:18-19; Acts 10:13-15; 1 Tim 4:3-4). At times, however, they should willingly forgo their freedom, so that they do not create unnecessary difficulties for those who still observe food laws like those given to Israel. Consideration for another person’s well-being is more important than the food one eats (Rom 14:14,17,20; 1 Cor 10:31). Apart from considering others, Christians must discipline their eating and drinking habits for their own sake. The Bible links gluttony and drunkenness as sins equally to be avoided (Prov 23:2,21; Luke 6:25; 1 Cor 11:20-22). In ancient times, as in the present day, meals were an important part of social life. People ate meals together to show friendship and hospitality (Gen 18:6-9; 43:31-34; Mark 2:15; Luke 14:15-24), to confirm political and business agreements (Gen 26:28-31; 31:51-54), and to demonstrate fellowship with one another and with God (Lev 7:13-15; Deut 14:22-27; Luke 22:30; 1 Cor 10:17,21). This created difficulties for Christians when food at such meals had previously been offered to idols (1 Cor 8:1-8; 10:14-21; see IDOL, IDOLATRY).
Fruit and vegetables
From earliest times, people used certain plants and fruit trees as a ready source of good food (Gen 1:29; 3:18). The Israelites, before they entered Canaan, received instruction in farming, so that they might gain the best results from their crops and orchards. They were warned also that when cutting down trees to construct siegeworks, they were to be careful not to destroy the fruit trees (Lev 19:23-25; Deut 20:19- 20). Among the vegetables found in the world of the Bible were beans, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, garlic, mallows and mustard (Gen 25:34; Num 11:4-5; 2 Sam 17:28; Job 30:4; Matt 13:31). Some of the better known fruits were figs, grapes, olives, pomegranates, apples, dates, sycamore, pistachio nuts and almonds (Gen 43:11; Deut 8:8; 34:3; Song of Songs 7:8; 8:5; Amos 7:14; Matt 7:16; see FIGS; GRAPES; OLIVES). People ate grapes fresh or dried (raisins) and crushed them to make various types of wine (Num 6:3; Deut 32:14; Ruth 2:14; 1 Sam 25:18; Joel 1:5; 3:18). Pomegranate juice made another kind of popular drink (Song of Songs 8:2). Olives were crushed to produce olive oil, which, because of its extensive use in cooking, was a basic necessity for the Hebrews. They mixed it with flour in preparing breads and cakes, and used it as a cooking fat for a variety of foods (Exod 29:2; Lev 2:4,14-16; 1 Kings 17:12-14; see OIL). The Hebrews also made a variety of sauces, usually by mixing the crushed flesh of certain fruits with other ingredients (Mark 14:20; see also SPICES).
Cereals
The Israelites’ chief cereals were barley and wheat (Exod 9:31-32; 34:22; Deut 8:8). Cereal crops were important, mainly because the people obtained from them the flour to make the breads and cakes that were their staple diet (Gen 18:6; 21:14; 26:12; 37:7; 42:2; Exod 29:23; 2 Kings 4:42; Ezek 4:9; John 6:9). Cereals were so valuable that people at times used them instead of money when trading (Hosea 3:2). The price of grain, or the price of the bread made from it, was an indication of economic conditions in the land (2 Kings 7:1; Rev 6:6). Flour was obtained by grinding the grain between two millstones (Exod 11:5; Isa 47:2; Matt 24:41; Rev 18:22). People made various sorts of cakes and breads. Sometimes they put honey in the mixture to sweeten it, and sometimes they added leaven (yeast) to make the cake rise. This took time, and when people were in a hurry they may have omitted the leaven. Unleavened cakes were flat and heavy, leavened cakes round and light (Gen 19:3; Exod 12:33-34,39; Lev 23:17; 1 Sam 28:24; Matt 13:33; see LEAVEN). Cooking was done on an iron plate or in a clay oven (Lev 2:4-5; Isa 44:15; Hosea 7:4,6-7).
Food from animals
Animals that Israelites most commonly used for meat were those animals that were suitable for sacrifice, such as cattle, sheep and goats. But the Israelites were not great eaters of meat, and seem to have included it in their meals mainly on special occasions (Gen 18:7; Judg 6:19; 1 Sam 25:18; 28:24; Luke 15:23,29). Meat was either roasted or boiled (1 Sam 2:13-15; Ezek 24:3-5). In addition to animals from the flocks and herds, certain wild animals also could be eaten. A meal made from the flesh of these animals was of special value (Gen 27:3-4; Deut 14:4-5). Fish also was allowed as food (Deut 14:9-10; Luke 24:42-43; John 6:11; 21:9). The Israelites used milk, butter and cheese regularly in their meals (Gen 18:7-8; 1 Sam 17:18; 2 Sam 17:29; Prov 27:27; 30:33; Isa 7:22). They also ate the honey of wild bees, which was readily found in rocks and trees (Deut 32:13; Judg 14:8; 1 Sam 14:25). Poor people also ate locusts (Matt 3:4).
FOOL, FOLLY
In biblical usage, the word ‘fool’ has a wide range of meanings. Among these there is the usual variety of everyday meanings where the word applies to those who are careless, thoughtless, stupid, foolish, wicked or easily led (1 Sam 25:25; Prov 7:7; 9:13; 10:23; 17:7,18; 24:30; Matt 25:2; 2 Cor 11:16- 20; 2 Tim 2:23). But the writers of the Bible also use the word with a particular meaning because of the accountability of all people to their Creator.
The writers apply it to those who rely entirely on their own understanding and ability instead of relying on God. Foolishness in this sense is not so much denial of God’s existence as rebellion against him (Ps 14:1; Prov 1:7; 12:15; Isa 32:6; Jer 4:22; Luke 12:20; Eph 5:17). Therefore, the greatest fools may be those whom the world considers wise. They may think God’s way of salvation through Christ’s death to be foolish, but if they reject that salvation, they themselves are foolish (1 Cor 1:18-24). By calling God’s work of salvation foolish, people display their ignorance. Such salvation is based on a wisdom that is beyond the capacity of the human mind to understand fully (1 Cor 1:25; see WISDOM). A widely used term of abuse in Jesus’ time was a word that has also been translated ‘fool’. Jesus referred to this abusive expression when illustrating that hate is the root cause of murder. Because God is concerned with people’s attitudes as well as their actions, a person with uncontrolled hate is as liable to God’s punishment as a murderer (Matt 5:21-22).
FOREIGNER
Almost every large community contains some people whom the community regards as foreigners. This often creates tensions (Num 12:1; Neh 13:23-25; Acts 18:2; 1 Thess 2:16), in spite of God’s desire that there be tolerance and harmony (cf. Matt 5:9; Rom 12:18; Eph 2:14-16). When the Israelites migrated from Egypt to Canaan, many foreigners were among them (Exod 12:38). In Canaan more foreigners were among them, because of the Israelites’ failure to wipe out the local people (Josh 17:12; Judg 3:5). (Concerning the specific reasons for exterminating the Canaanites see CANAAN.) Israelites themselves brought in more foreigners by taking people captive in war and bringing them back to Israel to work as slaves and labourers (Num 31:9; Josh 9:22-24; 17:13; 1 Kings 9:21; see SLAVE).
God has a special concern for those who are resident foreigners or who belong to other minority groups that are liable to unfair treatment by the majority (Deut 10:17-19; Ps 146:9). He instructed Israelites to treat foreigners with tolerance and kindness, and to remember how they themselves felt when they were foreigners in Egypt (Exod 23:9; Deut 24:19-22; see HOSPITALITY). Foreigners who worked for Israelites were to have one day rest in seven the same as Israelites (Exod 20:10). They were under the law of Israel (Exod 12:19; Lev 17:10; 18:26; 20:2; 24:16), but they also shared the national blessings of Israel (Deut 29:10-13; Josh 8:33; 20:9). They could join in some of Israel’s ceremonies (Num 15:14; Deut 26:11), but they could not join in the Passover unless they had formally become members of the covenant people (Exod 12:48-50; see CIRCUMCISION; PROSELYTE).
Under the new covenant, by contrast, there is no distinction between Israelites and foreigners. All believers are united in one body through faith, regardless of nationality (Gal 3:28; Eph 2:19; see GENTILE; RACE). Among Old Testament Israelites there was a sense in which even they were foreigners. The land of Canaan belonged to God and the Israelites were like foreign visitors, or pilgrims – people whom God allowed to live for a time in his land. That was why, after Joshua divided the land among the families of Israel, no one was to sell any portion of land permanently (Lev 25:23; see JUBILEE). In a sense all the inhabitants of the world are like foreign visitors, for the world is only their temporary dwelling place (1 Chron 29:15; Ps 39:12). This is particularly true of believers, whose real dwelling place is heaven (Heb 11:13-16; 13:14; 1 Peter 1:1,17; 2:11).
FOREKNOWLEDGE
Human knowledge is governed by the awareness that people have of a past, a present and a future, but God’s knowledge is not. God is eternal, and his knowledge is not related to a sequence of events that he must experience in a world of time and space (Isa 57:15; Jer 23:24; see ETERNITY; TIME). Human language uses the word ‘foreknowledge’ in relation to God because it is the most convenient word available to indicate knowledge of events that human beings sees as future. From their viewpoint, God’s knowledge of the entire history of the universe is foreknowledge (Ps 139:4-6,16; Isa 46:9-10; Acts 2:23). When the Bible speaks of God’s foreknowledge it means more than merely that he knows what will happen. Usually God’s foreknowledge is linked with God’s purpose, which means that it is often the same as his pre-determined will. God’s foreknowledge is according to his plan, and therefore may be another word for predestination (Acts 2:23; Rom 8:29; Heb 11:40; see PREDESTINATION). God’s sovereignty does not alter the fact that people are responsible for their actions. This may be a mystery beyond our understanding, but we do not solve the mystery by weakening the truth. We accept the perfect purposes of a sovereign God and at the same time acknowledge the free will of responsible human beings (Luke 22:22; Acts 2:23; see also ELECTION).
FORGIVENESS
Since wrongdoing spoils a relationship, forgiveness is necessary if the relationship is to be restored. Forgiveness does not mean pretending that some wrongdoing did not happen. It means recognizing the wrongdoing for what it is, and then in love forgiving it, forgetting it, and restoring the relationship with the forgiven person (Heb 10:17-18). The basis of forgiveness Men and women, being sinners, have more than spoiled their relationship with God; they have also fallen under God’s judgment. They are therefore in need of God’s forgiveness if they are to escape that judgment (Exod 32:32; Rom 3:23-24). God alone can grant this forgiveness (Mark 2:7,10; Acts 5:31), but sinners are in no position to demand it of him.
No person has a right to forgiveness. Forgiveness is possible only because of the grace of God – the mercy that he exercises towards people even though they do not deserve it (Num 14:19; Ps 78:38; Rom 5:20; Titus 3:4-7). God wants to forgive (Neh 9:17; Micah 7:18) but he requires repentance and faith in those who seek his forgiveness (Ps 32:5; 51:17; Luke 7:36-50; Acts 3:19; 10:43; 20:21; 1 John 1:9). There is no mechanical way of gaining forgiveness, such as by offering a sacrifice or reciting a formula. Sinners are dependent entirely upon God’s mercy (Ps 51:1-4; Col 2:13). This was so even in the sacrificial system of the Old Testament. There was no thought of bribing God by offering him sacrifices. On the contrary the sacrificial system was something God graciously gave as a means by which repentant sinners might approach him and obtain forgiveness (Lev 17:11; cf. Ps 130:3). In the sacrifices, God provided a way whereby people could demonstrate their repentance, faith and obedience. Without such attitudes, they benefited nothing from their sacrifices (Ps 50:9,13-14; 51:16-17; Isa 1:11,16-20). The death of the animal in the place of the sinner also showed the sinner clearly that forgiveness of sin was possible only when the penalty of sin had justly been carried out. Forgiveness was costly.
Without the shedding of blood there could be no forgiveness (Heb 9:22; cf. Lev 4:2-7; 16:15-19; see SACRIFICE). Christ’s death is the basis on which God forgives all sins, past, present or future (Matt 26:28; Acts 13:38; Rom 3:24-26; Eph 1:7; Heb 9:11-14,26). And once God has forgiven sins, they are removed for ever (Ps 103:12; Isa 43:25; Col 2:13-14; Heb 8:12; 10:17-18). Forgiveness in practice Christ’s followers have the responsibility to preach the forgiveness of sins, and because of this they become the means by which people either believe the gospel and are forgiven, or reject it and remain in their sins (John 20:22-23; Acts 13:38). Jesus on one occasion referred to the deliberate rejection of him as the blasphemy of the Holy Spirit, a sin for which there could be no forgiveness (Matt 12:31-32; for further discussion see BLASPHEMY). Once people have been forgiven by God, they have the responsibility to forgive any who sin against them. This is more than a sign of their gratitude to God. It is a requirement laid upon them if they want to experience God’s continued forgiveness of their own failures (Matt 6:12; 18:21-35; Mark 11:25; Luke 6:37; 7:47; 17:4; Eph 4:32). (Concerning the forgiven person’s subsequent wrongdoings and their relationship to salvation see JUSTIFICATION, sub-heading ‘Justification and forgiveness’.)
FORNICATION
Fornication usually refers to sexual immorality by unmarried people, whereas adultery refers to sexual immorality by married people. Sometimes the Bible speaks of fornication to denote sexual immorality in general. It regards as immoral any sexual relations outside marriage or with any person other than one’s marriage partner (Matt 5:32; 1 Cor 5:1; 6:13,18; 7:2; 1 Thess 4:3-4). The union of a man and a woman to become ‘one’ means, by definition, that it excludes all others (Gen 2:24; Matt 19:5-6).
Sexual relations without marriage
In ancient Israel it was of greatest importance to maintain one’s virginity up till the time of marriage (Deut 22:13-21). Fornication by a person engaged to be married was treated as adultery (Deut 22:22-27; see ADULTERY). Unengaged people who had sexual relations were to marry, unless the girl’s parents objected (Exod 22:16-17; Deut 22:28-29). These laws impressed upon people that sexual intercourse is not merely a physical activity that people may engage in for their own pleasure, regardless of other considerations. It is part of a total commitment of a man and a woman to each other in a lifelong relationship (Rom 7:2). Those who treat sexual intercourse as no more than a physical function reduce themselves to the level of animals. They deny the dignity that God has given them as human beings designed for full inter-personal relations (Rom 1:24-27; 1 Cor 6:13,18; 2 Peter 2:12).
Wrong desires produce wrong behaviour
Often fornication occurs because people, instead of trying to avoid sexual temptation, encourage it. They do not control their thoughts and feelings, and soon they find that they cannot control their behaviour (Prov 6:23-27; 7:6-23; Matt 5:28; Col 3:5; 2 Tim 2:22; 1 Peter 2:11; cf. Gen 39:7-10; see TEMPTATION). Human sexuality is one of God’s gifts (Gen 2:18; 1 Tim 4:1-4) but, as with all God’s gifts, people can properly enjoy it or shamefully abuse it. No matter how strong a person’s sexual urges may be, the only satisfaction God allows for those urges is within the exclusive commitment of one person to another in lifelong marriage (1 Cor 7:2,9; 1 Thess 4:3-4; Heb 13:4; see MARRIAGE). As for prostitution, bestiality, incest and homosexual practices, God condemns them as perversions (Lev 18:6-18,22-23; 19:29; 20:10- 21; Rom 1:26-27; 1 Cor 6:9-10,13-18; 1 Tim 1:9-10; Rev 21:8). Some people may feel no shame concerning their sexual misbehaviour and may not even see it as sinful (Eph 4:19; 1 Peter 4:3-4; 2 Peter 2:12-14). This may be common among people who do not know God (Eph 4:17-19; 1 Thess 4:5), but should not be tolerated among those who call themselves Christians. The church should remove from its fellowship those who openly reject God’s standards by persisting in shameful sexual misconduct (1 Cor 5:1-5,11). There will always be people, both from outside the church and from within, who, being genuinely sorry for their sexual misconduct, turn from it and ask God’s forgiveness. They can be assured that God will forgive, but they must also be assured that the church will forgive. Christians must be compassionate and understanding in giving support to those who have fallen into wrongdoing and need help (Matt 9:12- 13; John 8:10-11; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 2 Cor 2:7; Gal 6:1-2; Heb 8:12).
FREEDOM
Sinful human beings are likened in the Bible to slaves, those who are in bondage to sin, Satan, the law and death. When by faith they receive God’s salvation, they are freed from this slavery (Luke 13:16; John 8:31-34; Rom 6:17-18; Gal 4:5-7). This is an act of God’s supreme grace that has as its basis the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Luke 4:17-19; John 8:36; Rom 7:4-6; 8:2; Heb 2:14-15).
Christian living
Although Christians are free from the law to which the ancient Israelites were bound, they are not free to do as they like. They have been saved by God’s grace so that they might be free from sin, not so that they might fall under sin’s power again (Rom 6:6-14; Gal 5:13; 1 Peter 2:16; 2 Peter 2:19). They must live as those who, through their union with Christ, have died to sin and received a new life where righteousness dominates (Rom 6:16-19; 1 Peter 2:24; 4:1-2). Even when they are exercising their freedom correctly in relation to themselves, Christians must still consider whether they are exercising it correctly in relation to others. By controlling their freedom out of consideration for others, they demonstrate true Christian love (1 Cor 9:19-23; 10:23-24). Personal sacrifice is necessary, but Christians must resist the pressure to submit to any set of moral or ceremonial laws that other Christians might try to impose upon them. Such laws may aim at controlling natural sinful tendencies, but in the end they will not be beneficial. They will lead only to frustration and renewed bondage (Gal 2:4; 5:1; Col 2:23). Laws might aim at righteousness, but Christians cannot achieve righteousness by keeping laws. They can achieve it only by exercising true freedom under the control of the indwelling Spirit (Gal 5:14-16; cf. 2 Cor 3:17). Freedom in the Spirit does not mean that Christians need no self-discipline. On the contrary, selfdiscipline is an evidence of the Spirit’s work in them (Gal 5:22-23; see SELF-DISCIPLINE). Though free from sin, Satan, death and the law, they are not free from God. They are slaves of God, because God is the one who has bought them. They belong to God (1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:22-23; see REDEMPTION). As God’s slaves they have a responsibility to live righteously (Rom 6:17-22). Besides being servants of God, believers are sons of God, and they enjoy the full liberty of sonship (John 8:35-36; Rom 8:12-17; Gal 4:1-7; see ADOPTION). They accept the authority of a loving Father, and respond with loving obedience. Their new ‘law’ of life is one that they obey because they want to, not because they are forced to. It is the law of Christ, which is a law of liberty and a law of love (1 Cor 9:21; Gal 5:13-14; 6:2; James 1:25; 2:12; see OBEDIENCE).
Wider responsibilities
Having experienced God’s freedom, believers should then desire it for others. They should see that God wants people to have freedom from sin and all its evil consequences: freedom from disease and suffering (Mark 5:1-6,18-19; Luke 13:16; Acts 10:38); freedom from hunger and poverty (Deut 15:1-11; 24:19-22; Matt 25:37-40; Acts 11:27-29); freedom from the domination of foreign nations and oppressive rulers (Exod 6:6; Nahum 3:18-19; Zeph 3:19; Rev 19:20); freedom from human slavery and social injustice (Exod 22:21-27; Deut 23:15-16; Luke 4:17-19; James 5:4-6); in fact, freedom from every kind of bondage, even the bondage in the world of nature (Rom 8:21-24).
FULFILMENT
See PROPHECY; QUOTATIONS.
FUNERAL
The Israelites had elaborate customs for funerals, burials and mourning. The body of the dead person was washed (Acts 9:37), then anointed with oil or spices and wrapped in linen (John 11:44; 19:40; Acts 5:6). This was usually done by relatives or friends of the dead person (Mark 16:1). The burial followed with a minimum of delay (Acts 5:6,10). As the funeral procession moved to the burial place, it was accompanied by mourning and wailing (Amos 5:16; Matt 9:23-24; Luke 7:12-14,32). The mourners tore their clothes and put on sackcloth as a sign of their sorrow (2 Sam 3:31; see SACKCLOTH), but they were forbidden to follow superstitious heathen customs such as cutting themselves or making offerings for the dead (Lev 19:28; Deut 14:1; 26:14). The body may have been buried in a specially prepared private tomb (Matt 27:60), a family tomb (Gen 23:19; 25:9; 49:31-32; Judg 8:32; 16:31), or a public burial ground (2 Kings 23:6; Matt 27:7). The Israelites did not usually burn the bodies of the dead, though there were exceptions. These included cases of execution of the wicked (Gen 38:24; Lev 20:14; 21:9; Josh 7:15,25) and cases where a body was badly damaged, decaying, or a danger to public health (1 Sam 31:12-13; Amos 6:10).
Funerals were usually conducted in a way that gave honour to the person who had died (2 Chron 16:14; Eccles 8:10). To leave a body unburied was therefore a mark of supreme disgrace (1 Sam 17:46; Eccles 6:3; Jer 16:6; 22:18-19; 36:30). A song may have been composed in praise of the one who had died (2 Sam 1:17-27; 3:32-34; 2 Chron 35:25), though in the case of an enemy a song may have been composed to disgrace him (Isa 14:4-21). Another way in which Israelites showed their respect for those who had died was by adding decorations to their tombs (Matt 23:29). Often they whitewashed tombs so that people could see them at night; for anyone who touched a tomb, accidentally or otherwise, became ceremonially unclean (Matt 23:27; cf. Num 19:11,16). This association of death with uncleanness reflects the truth that death leads to decay and corruption. The physical body eventually returns to the dust from which it was made (Gen 3:19; Eccles 3:20; John 11:39). But regardless of how the body returns to dust, whether through being buried, burnt or entombed, Christians are assured that Jesus will return to conquer death and raise them to new life. Their bodies will be changed into glorious spiritual bodies, suited to life in the age to come (1 Cor 15:42-51; Phil 3:20; 1 Thess 4:13-17; see DEATH; RESURRECTION).