GABRIEL
Angels, or messengers of God, feature frequently in the Bible record, but only rarely does the Bible give their names. One of those whom it names is Gabriel. In the time of Judah’s captivity, Gabriel made an appearance to Daniel as a man-like figure and explained the meaning of one of Daniel’s visions (Dan 8:15-17). Later he appeared again, this time to bring God’s answer to Daniel’s prayer of confession on behalf of the nation. He assured Daniel that God would now restore the Jews to their land and bring his age-long purposes to fulfilment with the coming of the Messiah (Dan 9:20-27). Centuries later, Gabriel was again used by God to reveal developments of these divine purposes. He announced to Zechariah the coming birth of the Messiah’s forerunner (Luke 1:11-20), and then to Mary the coming birth of the Messiah himself (Luke 1:26-38). (See also ANGELS.)
GAD
Only nine and a half of Israel’s twelve tribes settled in the area commonly known as Canaan (i.e. the land west of the Jordan River). The other two and a half tribes settled in the area east of Jordan. In this eastern area half of the tribe of Manasseh was in the north, the tribe of Gad in the centre and the tribe of Reuben in the south (Num 32:1-5,33; Josh 13:8-33). (For the settlement of the two and a half eastern tribes see REUBEN.) Although the tribe was known as Gad (after the son of Jacob who fathered it; Gen 30:9-11), the area where it dwelt was commonly known as Gilead. Sometimes the names Gad and Gilead were used interchangeably (Josh 13:24-25; Judg 5:17; 11:5; 12:4; 1 Sam 13:7). (For the physical features of the region see GILEAD.) Gad, like the other eastern tribes, was more open to attack than the western tribes, but the men of Gad were fierce fighters who drove back the invaders (Gen 49:19). They could not, however, withstand invasions for ever, and when Israel was later destroyed by Assyria, they were among the first Israelites to go into captivity (2 Kings 10:32-33; 15:29).
GADARA
The district of Gadara bordered the Lake of Galilee on its eastern side and extended south into the territory known as Decapolis. Gadara was not so thickly populated as other districts around the lake, and was inhabited mainly by Gentiles, some of them pig farmers. The Gadarenes were known also as Gerasenes after the chief town of the district (Matt 8:28; Mark 5:1,11-14). (For map and other details see DECAPOLIS.)
GAIUS
There are several people named Gaius in the New Testament, all except one of them connected with Paul. Paul baptized a man named Gaius in Corinth (1 Cor 1:14), and this was probably the person Paul stayed with on a later visit to Corinth (Rom 16:23). Another person named Gaius was from Macedonia (Acts 19:29) and another from Derbe (Acts 20:4). According to a variation in some texts of Acts 20:4, this latter Gaius may have been from Thessalonica, in which case he was possibly the same person referred to in Acts 19:29. Later in the first century, the apostle John wrote a letter to a friend named Gaius. He was a person noted for his strong faith, exemplary life, generous hospitality and sincere love (3 John 1-6).
GALATIA
In the days before the Roman Empire, Asia Minor consisted of a collection of independent states. When it came under the control of the Romans, the whole area was redivided to form a number of Roman provinces. The large central province, which the Romans named Galatia, included parts of the ancient regions of Galatia in the north, Phrygia in the south-west, Pisidia in the south and Lycaonia in the southeast Paul passed through south Galatia on a number of occasions and established churches in the towns of Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe. Sometimes the Bible writers refer to these towns as belonging to the Roman province of Galatia, but on other occasions they follow local practice and use the former names (Acts 13:14,51; 14:6,24; 16:6; 18:23; 1 Cor 16:1; Gal 1:2; 2 Tim 4:10). (Concerning the letter that Paul wrote to the churches of Galatia see GALATIANS, LETTER TO THE.)
GALILEE
Galilee was the northern section of Palestine. It was a mountainous region that extended from the Lake of Galilee north to the Lebanon Ranges and west to the coastal plain. The Old Testament barely mentions it by name, since it was not in those days a distinct political territory. When the Old Testament refers to places in Galilee, it usually mentions them according to their location in the tribal areas of the region – Dan, Naphtali, Issachar, Zebulun and Asher (Josh 20:7; Isa 9:1; cf. Matt 4:12-15). In New Testament times Galilee was a clearly defined region and a province of the Roman Empire. It fell within the sub-kingdom of Herod Antipas (Mark 6:14-29; Luke 3:1; 23:6-12) and his successor Herod Agrippa I (Acts 12:20), but was under the overall rule of Rome. (For details see HEROD.)
The population of Galilee was a mixture of Jews and Gentiles, and this was one reason why the strict Jews of Judea despised the Galilean Jews (John 7:41,52). Added to this, Galilee was cut off from Judea by the territory of the Samaritans, a people of mixed blood and mixed religion who hated, and were hated by, the Jews (Luke 9:51-56; John 4:3-4,9). Jesus grew up in Galilee (see NAZARETH) and spent most of the three and a half years of his public ministry there (Matt 2:22-23; 3:13; 4:12-16,23; 15:29; 17:22; 19:1; 21:11; 26:32,69; 27:55; 28:7,16). Towns of Galilee that feature in the story of Jesus are Caesarea Philippi in the far north (Matt 16:13), Capernaum, Bethsaida, Chorazin, Magdala and Tiberias around the Lake of Galilee (Matt 4:13; 11:21-23; 27:56; Mark 6:45; John 6:17,23), and Nazareth, Cana and Nain in the hill country south of the lake (Luke 2:39; 4:16; 7:11; John 2:1-11; 4:46; 21:2). (For further details see separate entries under the names of these towns. For details of the physical features of Galilee see PALESTINE.)
GATH
One of the ‘five cities of the Philistines’, Gath was famous as the home of a number of giants, the most famous of whom was Goliath (Josh 13:3; 1 Sam 6:17-18; 17:4; 2 Sam 21:18-22; see also ANAK). It also became well known as the place where David took refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12). Certain men of Gath became close friends of David. When David became king of Israel, he entrusted some of these men with important responsibilities (2 Sam 6:10-11; 15:19-21; 18:2). Others became fulltime soldiers in David’s army (2 Sam 15:18). (For a map of the region and other details see PHILISTIA.)
GAZA
The town of Gaza, on the Mediterranean coastal plain, was one of the ‘five cities of the Philistines’. The other four were Gath, Ashdod, Ashkelon and Ekron (Josh 13:3; 1 Sam 6:17-18). Gaza features in a number of Old Testament stories, among them those concerning Samson (Judg 16:1-3; 16:21-30). (For a map of the region and details of the Old Testament history of Gaza see PHILISTIA.) The sole New Testament reference to the town is in the story of Philip’s meeting with an African official whom he led to faith in Christ (Acts 8:26-38). The present-day town of Gaza has been built on or beside the ruins of the old town.
GEDALIAH
In 587 BC the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem, abolished Judah’s monarchy, plundered the nation’s treasures and took all its best people into captivity (2 Kings 25:1-21). They then appointed Gedaliah, son of a former Jerusalem official, governor over those Judeans who remained in the land (2 Kings 25:22; cf. Jer 26:24). Gedaliah set up his headquarters at Mizpah, north of Jerusalem, and with Jeremiah’s support followed a policy of submission to Babylon. He took no action against Judah’s anti-Babylonian military leaders who had managed to escape the Babylonian army, but encouraged them, and other Judeans who had fled for safety, to return and settle around Mizpah (2 Kings 25:23-24; Jer 40:5-12).
One of Judah’s former army commanders, Ishmael, opposed this policy of submission to Babylon and plotted to overthrow Gedaliah. When told of the plot, Gedaliah refused to believe it. That did not stop Ishmael from murdering him, along with all the Judean officials and Babylonian supervisors at Gedaliah’s headquarters (2 Kings 25:25; Jer 40:13-41:3). That started a sequence of events that resulted in the rest of the Judeans fleeing to Egypt (2 Kings 25:26; Jer 41:4-43:13). The Bible mentions four other men named Gedaliah. The first was a musician in the time of David (1 Chron 25:3,9), the second an ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah (Zeph 1:1), the third an official in Jerusalem who opposed Jeremiah (Jer 38:1-6), and the fourth a priest in the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:18).
GENTILE
The Hebrew word translated in English as ‘Gentile’ meant originally ‘a nation’. When Israel became in a special sense God’s people, Israelites used the expression ‘the nations’ (‘the Gentiles’) to refer to all non-Israelite people (Deut 7:6; Gal 2:15). God’s law prohibited Israelites from copying any Gentile customs that were likely to corrupt their religion (Deut 18:9).
But they repeatedly ignored that law, with the result that eventually their nation was conquered and the people taken into captivity (2 Kings 17:7-8). The Gentiles, whose ways Israel had copied, then became the means God used to punish Israel (Judg 2:20-23; Isa 10:5-6). Since God’s purpose was that Israel take the message of his salvation to the Gentiles, Jesus announced the gospel to the Jews first. But he knew that on the whole they would not accept it and that as a result the gospel would go to the Gentiles (Isa 49:6; Matt 10:5-7; 12:18-21; 28:19; Luke 2:32; 4:25-28). Paul likewise preached the gospel to the Jews first, but when they refused it he turned to the Gentiles and there was a great response (Acts 13:46-48; 18:5-6; 22:21; 28:28; Rom 9:30-31; 11:11; 15:16). Gentile people who did not know God had the reputation of being selfish, immoral, greedy, ungodly and idolatrous (Matt 5:47; 6:32; Rom 1:18-32; 1 Cor 12:2; Gal 2:15; Eph 4:17-19; 1 Thess 1:9; 4:5). Although they did not have the law of Moses as a guide, that was no excuse for their behaviour. Their own consciences told them that certain things were either right or wrong, and God would judge them accordingly (Rom 2:12-16).
In the eyes of the Jews, Gentiles had no hope of salvation, because they were excluded from the covenant promises that God gave to Israel (Eph 2:11-12). Only by becoming converts to the Jewish religion could they have hope of salvation (Matt 23:15; Acts 2:10; see PROSELYTE). It is therefore easy to see why, in the early days of the church, many Jewish Christians did not want to accept Gentiles into the church unless they kept the Jewish law (Acts 11:2-3; 15:1,5). It soon became clear, however, that the old Jewish regulations did not apply in the new community of God’s people (Acts 15:8-11,19; Col 2:13-14). Gentiles and Jews were equals; more than that, they were united in one body (Rom 1:16; 3:29; 9:24; Gal 3:28; Eph 2:13-22; 3:4-6; Rev 5:9-10).
GENTLENESS
See HUMILITY; MEEKNESS.
GERASA
Gerasa was a town in Decapolis, south-east of the Sea of Galilee. It lay within the region of Gadara and gave its name to the surrounding district. As a result some of the Gadarenes were at times called Gerasenes, even though they may not have lived in the town itself (Mark 5:1-2; cf. Matt 8:28). (For map and other details see DECAPOLIS; GADARA.)
GERIZIM
Mount Gerizim stood beside the town of Shechem, opposite Mount Ebal. Both mountains were closely linked with Shechem in the history of Israel, and Mt Gerizim later became a sacred mountain to the Samaritans (Deut 27:11-14; John 4:20). (For details see SHECHEM.)
GETHSEMANE
Gethsemane was the name of a garden on the slopes of the Mount of Olives, just outside Jerusalem. Jesus went there frequently with his disciples (Luke 22:39; John 18:1-2) and prayed there in great agony the night before his crucifixion (Matt 26:30,36-45). The victory he won through that time of prayer enabled him to meet with confidence those who had come to the garden to arrest him (Matt 26:46-56; John 18:3-12). (Concerning the Mount of Olives see JERUSALEM, sub-heading ‘Mountains and hills’.)
GIBEAH
The town of Gibeah was located in the tribal area of Benjamin (Josh 18:21,28; for map see BENJAMIN). It earned itself a bad reputation during the time of the judges when the men of Gibeah committed a serious crime and the leaders of Benjamin, instead of punishing them, defended them. The other tribes responded with an attack that almost wiped out Benjamin (Judg 19:1-21:24; Hosea 9:9; 10:9). Gibeah was also the home town of Saul, Israel’s first king. In spite of Benjamin’s being the smallest tribe in Israel (1 Sam 9:21), Gibeah became the administrative centre of Saul’s kingdom (1 Sam 10:26; 11:4; 14:16; 15:34; 22:6; 23:19; 26:1).
GIBEON
Being a Canaanite town of central Palestine, Gibeon should have been destroyed by Joshua’s invading army. Instead the people of the town tricked the Israelites into promising to preserve them. The Israelites, though angry that the Gibeonites had deceived them, kept their promise and allowed the Gibeonites to live. The Gibeonites were forced to work for the Israelites as labourers, but the Israelites defended them against enemy attacks (Josh 9:3-27; 10:1-14). When Saul broke the treaty and murdered some of the Gibeonites, his sons were executed in ‘blood for blood’ justice (2 Sam 21:1-9). Gibeon later became an important religious centre, where the tabernacle was set up and the priesthood operated for many years. It was the last location of the tabernacle before Solomon replaced it with a permanent temple in Jerusalem (1 Chron 16:39; 21:29; 2 Chron 1:3,13).
GIDEON
Among the enemies that attacked Israel during the time of the judges were the Midianites. Their yearly raids devastated Israel (Judg 6:1-6), and when the people cried to God for help, he chose Gideon to save them. Gideon at first found it difficult to believe that God had chosen him for this task, but his faith was strengthened when an offering he prepared for God was miraculously burnt up (Judg 6:11-24).
Israel was in bondage to the worship of Baal. Therefore, if the people were to claim God’s help, they had first of all to destroy the false religions. In Gideon’s home town of Ophrah, Gideon’s father was caretaker of the local Baal shrine, but when Gideon began his reformation, his father became the first convert. Others in the town were hostile (Judg 6:25-32). This hostility did not last, for when Gideon called the people to battle, the people of his own clan (and therefore probably of his own town) were the first to respond. Others soon followed their example and Gideon was able to assemble a fighting force. Still uncertain of himself, Gideon twice asked God for miraculous signs to confirm that he was the one God had chosen (Judg 6:33-40). God allowed Gideon only three hundred men to launch the attack, to impress upon him the need for total trust in God for success (Judg 7:1-8; Heb 11:32-33). Gideon’s faith was greatly strengthened when he discovered, by secretly visiting the enemy’s camp, that the Midianites were in the grip of an unnatural fear (Judg 7:9-15).
When the Midianites were awoken in the middle of the night by a terrifying noise and found themselves surrounded by Israelite soldiers, panic broke out. Some of the Midianites unknowingly attacked each other in the confusion, and others fled in fear. The larger Israelite force then swept in upon them (Judg 7:16-25). Upon discovering that the Midianite kings had escaped across the Jordan, Gideon set out after them. He eventually captured them, but before executing them, he punished the leaders of one Israelite town for earlier refusing to help him and his soldiers (Judg 8:1-21). Gideon was now a national hero. To his credit he rejected the people’s invitation to become their king (for God alone was their king), but he foolishly celebrated his victory over Midian by making a visible symbol of the invisible God. He may have had good intentions, but he opened the way for idolatry. Soon Gideon, his family and the people as a whole had returned to their former idolatrous ways (Judg 8:22-28).
GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT
According to common usage, the expressions ‘gifts of the Spirit’ and ‘spiritual gifts’ refer to those abilities that God gives to Christians for use in his service (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 12:4). The Bible usually speaks of these gifts in relation to the local church, where, through the proper use of all the gifts, the members of the church are spiritually built up (1 Cor 12:7; Eph 4:11-12).
Variety of gifts
Different gifts and different forms of service do not indicate different levels of spirituality. All the abilities come from God, and he distributes them according to his will (1 Cor 12:4-7,11). The variety of gifts in the church is likened to the variety of functions in the human body. As the body functions best when each part carries out its function properly, so the church functions best when each person exercises his or her gifts properly, without pride, competition or jealousy (1 Cor 12:14-26). Although there is variety, there is unity (Rom 12:4-5; 1 Cor 12:12,27). In several places the New Testament lists some gifts of the Spirit (Rom 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:8-10; 12:27- 31; Eph 4:11; 1 Peter 4:9-11).
These lists, whether separately or combined, do not provide a complete catalogue of all the gifts, but give examples relevant to the writer’s purpose. No list can be complete, because God’s sovereign Spirit equips people according to the changing circumstances of different times and places (Acts 13:2; 1 Cor 12:7,11; Gal 2:9; 1 Tim 4:14). This work of the Spirit may begin with the God-given natural abilities that people possesses even before they become believers (Acts 9:15; Gal 1:15- 16). Sometimes the New Testament speaks of gifted people themselves as gifts whom God gives to the church. This is particularly so in the case of the teaching and leadership gifts (Eph 4:11; see APOSTLE; PROPHET; EVANGELIST; PASTOR; TEACHER). These gifts may not be as spectacular as some other gifts, but they are more important (1 Cor 12:28-31). The more spectacular gifts include the power to heal sickness and disease (1 Cor 12:9,28; cf. Acts 3:6-8; 8:7; see HEALING), the ability to perform miracles (1 Cor 12:10; cf. Acts 9:36-41; 13:11; 2 Cor 12:12; see MIRACLES), special faith that achieves what normally seems unlikely (1 Cor 12:9; cf. Matt 17:19-20; Heb 11:33-40) and abilities relating to speaking in tongues, interpreting tongues and distinguishing between different kinds of spirits (1 Cor 12:10; cf. Acts 8:13-21; 1 Cor 14:13,27; 1 John 4:1; see TONGUES). Other gifts may be less spectacular, but they are nevertheless important. These include the various capacities that people have for administering affairs, giving generously, helping others and showing mercy (Rom 12:8; 16:2; 1 Cor 11:28; cf. Acts 9:36; 2 Tim 1:16-18).
Using the gifts
While some people exercise their gifts mainly within their own locality (Acts 20:28-32; Col 4:12- 13,17), others do so over a wider area, spending longer or shorter periods in various churches (Acts 11:25-26; 18:11; 20:31; 3 John 5-8). Church leaders should be constantly looking for those who show ability and should help them develop it (1 Tim 4:14-16; 2 Tim 2:2; cf. Acts 13:5; 16:1-3). At the same time individual Christians should desire spiritual gifts (1 Cor 14:1) and should pray for them (1 Cor 14:13), especially the more important gifts (1 Cor 12:31). Some, however, might seek gifts with the wrong motives; others, in spite of their good intentions, might wrongly assess their own abilities (Rom 12:3-5; 1 Cor 12:1-3; 1 Tim 1:7; 2 Peter 2:1). Church leaders must therefore have the ability to distinguish between the true and the false (1 Thess 5:21; 1 John 4:1). Christians develop their spiritual gifts by using them (Rom 12:6). They should work hard to achieve excellence in their performance (1 Tim 4:15) and must exercise their gifts within the guidelines God has set out (1 Cor 14:27-31). But good performance is not in itself enough. There must also be practical godliness in daily living (1 Tim 4:16).
Believers can carry out spiritual work properly only by the work of God’s Spirit within them (1 Cor 2:12-13). If they exercise spiritual gifts in the wrong attitude, they may even cause harm (1 Cor 13:1-3). God gives gifts to build up the entire church, not to satisfy the pride or selfishness of the gifted individual. All must exercise their gifts in a spirit of submission to others (1 Cor 12:7; 13:4-7; 14:5.26; 1 Peter 4:10; 5:5). An indication of the Spirit’s work in the lives of believers is not the spiritual gifts they exercise, but the spiritual fruit they produce (Gal 5:22-23; cf. 2 Cor 3:17-18). Spiritual gift varies according to the ability that God gives, but spiritual fruit is the Christian character that God desires for all his people. Gifts are limited to service in the present world, but character will endure into the world to come. That is why the development of spiritual gift must be accompanied by a corresponding development in true Christian love (1 Cor 13:8-13).
GILEAD
The Bible uses the name Gilead in a number of ways, all of them in relation to the territory that Israel occupied east of the Jordan River. This area was a large tableland, broken by rivers that ran through deep gorges. (For details of trans-Jordan in general see PALESTINE, sub-heading ‘Jordan Valley and Dead Sea’.) Geographically, Gilead was the region between the Yarmuk River (southern boundary of the land once known as Bashan) and the northern tip of the Dead Sea (Deut 3:10). The Jabbok River divided this territory approximately in halves. The eastern part of the tribe of Manasseh lived in the northern half, and the tribe of Gad in the southern half (Deut 3:12-13). The Bible may refer to either half as Gilead. It calls the northern half (Manasseh) Gilead in Joshua 17:1,6 and half-Gilead in Joshua 13:29-31.
It calls the southern half (Gad) Gilead in Joshua 13:24-25 and half-Gilead in Joshua 12:2. It mentions the two halves together in Deuteronomy 3:12-13. The Bible speaks of Gilead in yet another sense, and that is to refer to the whole of the former Amorite territory that Israel’s two and a half eastern tribes occupied. This area included the land of Bashan in the far north and the tribal area of Reuben in the far south. Its southern border was the Arnon River, which divided Reuben from neighbouring Moab (Judg 10:8; 20:1; 2 Kings 15:29; see BASHAN; MOAB). Gilead, like the rest of the area east of Jordan, had large open plains that were good for raising sheep and cattle. The region was also good for growing fruit and grain, and had hilly areas of forest (Num 32:1,26,36; Jer 22:6; 50:19). It was famous for its balm, which people believed had healing properties and which they therefore used extensively in making medicines (Jer 8:22; 46:11; 51:8). Chief towns of Gilead that feature in the Old Testament story are Jabesh-gilead (Judg 21:8-12; 1 Sam 11:1; 31:8-13), Mahanaim (Gen 32:1-2; Josh 21:38; 2 Sam 2:29; 17:24), Ramoth-gilead (Josh 21:38; 1 Kings 22:3-4; 2 Kings 8:28; 9:1- 3), Succoth (Gen 33:17; Josh 13:27; Judg 8:4-16) and Penuel (Gen 32:31; Judg 8:4-17; 1 Kings 12:25). In New Testament times the former land of Gilead fell partly within the Decapolis and partly within Perea. Towns of the region that feature in the New Testament story are Gadara, Gerasa and Bethany-beyond-Jordan (Matt 4:25; 8:28; Mark 5:1; 7:31; John 1:28; see DECAPOLIS; PEREA).
GILGAL
When Israel under Joshua crossed the Jordan to conquer Canaan, the first place they came to was Gilgal. There they set up a camp, which became the headquarters for the battles to follow (Josh 4:19; 6:11; 10:6). Israel’s entrance into Canaan was the beginning of a new way of life, and Joshua set up a memorial at Gilgal to mark the occasion (Josh 4:20). He also arranged for the circumcision of all those who had been born during the years in the wilderness but had not yet been circumcised. The significance of this mass ceremony was that circumcision was the sign of the covenant under which Israel inherited the land (Josh 5:2-9).
At Gilgal the Israelites kept their first Passover in Canaan. The forty years journey from Egypt was now formally over, and the daily supply of manna ceased (Josh 5:10-12). Gilgal was the administrative centre of Israel throughout the war and in the early days of the settlement program (Josh 10:6,9,15,43; 14:6). The headquarters was then transferred to Shiloh (Josh 18:1,8-10). Later, Gilgal became an important religious town in Israel. It was one of the four towns in central Palestine that Samuel visited on his annual circuit. The school for prophets that he established there was still operating in the days of Elijah and Elisha (1 Sam 7:16-17; 2 Kings 2:1; 4:38).
Samuel also established in Gilgal a place of sacrifice for important national occasions (1 Sam 10:8; 13:8; 15:12). After Saul led Israel to victory in his first battle, the people arranged a public ceremony at Gilgal to confirm him king over a now united people (1 Sam 11:12-15). But Gilgal was also the place where Saul lost the kingdom through his wilfulness and disobedience (1 Sam 13:7-15; 15:12-33). Gilgal remained popular with the people as a place of worship. Nevertheless, because of the selfrighteousness and unspirituality of the worshippers, God’s prophets repeatedly denounced Gilgal and the people who worshipped there (Hosea 4:15; 9:15; 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:4-5).
GIVING
God is the giver of life and the ultimate provider of all that is necessary to maintain and enjoy life. This includes money and other possessions (Job 1:21; Eccles 5:19; 12:7; Matt 6:26-30; 1 Tim 6:17; James 1:17). Since God is the ultimate owner of all things, his people should acknowledge that whatever they possess they hold on trust from him. They are answerable to him for the way they use these things, and by giving a portion back to him they express their thanks and worship. The offering, however, is also a sacrifice. It must be costly to the offerer personally if it is to be a genuine expression of devotion (Gen 4:3-4; 28:20-22; 2 Sam 24:24; Mal 1:8; Phil 4:18; see SACRIFICE).
Amounts and motives
This element of devotion does not mean that a people must create feelings of heroic self-sacrifice or wait for the right mood before offering their gifts. Giving can be regulated and still be an act of devotion. The offering of tithes by Israelites was regulated, but it could still be an expression of the offerers’ devotion. God was not pleased, however, when people offered tithes in a spirit of self-satisfaction (Deut 14:22-29; Luke 18:12). Israelites further expressed their devotion by making voluntary contributions in addition to the compulsory tithes (Num 29:39; Neh 12:44; see TITHES).
Christians are not governed by the law-code of Israel, but the principles behind that law-code are written upon their hearts (Rom 7:6; Heb 10:16). The New Testament does not teach the Israelite tithing system for Christians, but it does teach that the amount Christians give should be in proportion to the income they receive (1 Cor 16:2; 2 Cor 8:3). It encourages Christians to give regularly, generously, and with thoughtful planning; though they should also give cheerfully, not grudgingly, and not under compulsion (1 Cor 16:2; 2 Cor 9:7). God does not want to drive people into poverty (2 Cor 8:13), though he commends those who give more than they can reasonably afford (2 Cor 8:3). God views a person’s gifts not in relation to their market value, but in relation to the offerer’s total financial capacity (Mark 12:43-44; 2 Cor 8:2). He is not pleased with those who give in a way designed to deceive people or win people’s praise (Matt 6:2; Acts 5:4). He promises his special care and a lasting reward for those who give generously because they love God and their fellow human beings (Matt 6:19-20; 2 Cor 9:6-12; Phil 4:17,19). Generosity should be a characteristic of all those who know that they have salvation only because Jesus gave everything for them (2 Cor 8:9). Once they have responded to his grace by giving themselves to God, they will find that giving brings pleasure. They will even look for ways to increase it (2 Cor 8:4- 5; 9:7; cf. Acts 20:35).
Distributing the contributions
In both Old and New Testaments, monetary and other gifts from God’s people were used for two main purposes. These were the service of God and the help of the needy. The tithes of the Israelites supported the Levites and priests, the servants of God in the Old Testament religious system (Num 18:21-28). On certain occasions the annual tithe (or perhaps an additional tithe) was shared also among the poor and needy (Deut 14:28-29; 26:12-15). God’s people were not to limit their giving to such occasions, but were to help the poor at all times. Giving to the poor was a way of giving to God (Deut 15:10-11; Prov 14:31; 19:17). Christians likewise are to give to the poor and needy, particularly those within the fellowship of the church (Luke 6:30,35; 12:33; Acts 11:29; Rom 12:13; 15:26; Gal 6:10). In addition they are to support financially those who carry out Christian service for them. This applies both to those who serve them in pastoral and teaching ministries in their own churches (1 Cor 9:13-14; Gal 6:6; 1 Tim 5:17-18) and to those who go on their behalf to other places in the service of the gospel (Phil 4:14-16; 3 John 8). If those who have the right to this financial support choose not to take it, gifts may be directed elsewhere (1 Cor 9:4-5,12,18; 2 Cor 11:8-9; 2 Thess 3:8-9). Sound wisdom and spiritual insight are necessary if gifts are to be distributed and used to the glory of God (Acts 6:3; 2 Cor 9:11,13; Phil 4:18,20).
GLORY
One of the common words that develops its own special meaning in the Bible is ‘glory’. When used of people or things in relation to everyday life, it may indicate nothing more than honour, fame, power, wealth or splendour (Gen 45:13; 2 Kings 14:10; Isa 8:7; 17:4; Dan 2:37; Matt 4:8; 6:29; John 5:44; 7:18). But because it is used more frequently of the majestic all-powerful God, it develops a significance that makes it a characteristic word of both Old and New Testaments.
The glory of the unseen
God Revelations of God’s majesty and power, such as through clouds, fire and lightning, were revelations of his glory (Exod 16:10; 24:16-17; Lev 9:23-24; Ps 29:3-4,7-9; Hab 3:3-4). Glory therefore became associated with brightness or shining. When God’s glory, symbolizing his presence, filled the tabernacle and later the temple, its brightness was so intense that no human being could look upon it (Exod 40:34- 35; 1 Kings 8:11; see SHEKINAH). Even when God allowed people a vision of his glory, it was usually so dazzling that it overpowered them (Exod 33:18-19; 34:8,29-30; Isa 6:1-5; Ezek 1:28; Luke 2:9; Rev 1:13- 17). Such visions were more than exhibitions of overpowering brightness; they were revelations of the nature of God. God’s glory is an expression of his character – his goodness, love, justice, power and holiness (Exod 33:18-19; 34:6-7; Ps 29:3; Isa 6:3; John 12:41; Rom 3:23). Therefore, the Bible speaks of the revelation of God through nature and through history as the revelation of his glory (Ps 19:1; 96:3; see REVELATION).
The glory of Christ and his people
Jesus Christ is the greatest revelation of God’s glory. The presence of God once dwelt in the world in the glory that filled the tabernacle or temple, but now that glory dwelt in the world in the form of a human being (John 1:14; James 2:1). The God whom no person could see, except in visions, now revealed himself in Jesus Christ (John 1:18; 2 Cor 4:6; Heb 1:3). Yet, while believers saw in Jesus the glory of God, unbelievers did not (John 1:14; 2:11; 1 Cor 2:8). This was partly because Christ’s glory during his earthly life was not a visible majestic splendour, such as he had as God before the world began. In being born into this world he laid that glory aside; though the event known as the transfiguration was a foretaste of a greater glory that would yet be his (Matt 17:1-6; John 17:5; see TRANSFIGURATION).
After the triumph of his life, death and resurrection, God exalted him to heaven’s highest place and gave him heaven’s highest glory (Phil 2:6-11; Heb 2:9; 1 Peter 1:11,21). One promise given to believers in Jesus Christ is that, as they share in Christ’s sufferings in this life, so they will share in his glory in the life to come (Rom 8:17-18; 2 Cor 4:17; Phil 3:21; 2 Thess 2:14; Heb 2:10; 1 Peter 5:1,10). In a sense they share in Christ’s glory now and increasingly become like Christ through their devotion to him (John 17:22; 2 Cor 3:18; 1 Peter 4:14). The great revelation of God’s glory at the end of the age will bring salvation to believers and terror to the wicked (Isa 60:1-3; 66:18-19; Matt 16:27; 24:30; 25:31; Col 3:4; Titus 2:11-14). Mere human beings cannot add to God’s glory (in the sense of his majesty and power) but they can give him glory (in the sense of honour and praise). They are to glorify him by their words and by their actions (1 Sam 6:5; Ps 96:8; Jer 13:16; Matt 5:16; Acts 12:23; Rom 4:20; 11:36; 1 Cor 10:31; 2 Cor 8:19; Eph 3:21; Rev 5:13; 14:7).
GNOSTIC
See KNOWLEDGE.
GOD
The Bible makes no attempt to prove the existence of God, but assumes it from the outset (Gen 1:1). This God is neither an impersonal ‘force’ nor an abstract ‘principle’ but a living person, and people find true meaning to existence by coming into a living relationship with him (John 17:3).
The personal God revealed
As people observe the physical world, they may conclude that there is an intelligent and powerful God who is the ultimate cause and controller of all things (Acts 17:23-27; Rom 1:19-20; Heb 3:4; see CREATION). As they reflect upon their awareness of right and wrong, they may conclude that there is a moral God to whom all rational creatures are answerable (Acts 17:23; Rom 2:15-16). However, God has not left people with only a vague or general knowledge of himself. He has revealed himself more fully through history, and he has recorded that revelation in the Bible (Jer 1:1-3; 2 Peter 1:21; see REVELATION). The central truth of that revelation is that there is only one God (Deut 6:4; Isa 44:6; Jer 10:10; Mark 12:29; 1 Thess 1:9; 1 Tim 2:5), though he exists in the form of a trinity (see TRINITY). In any study of the character of God, we must bear in mind that God is a unified personality. He is not made up of different parts, nor can he be divided into different parts. Also, he is not simply a person who has certain qualities (e.g. goodness, truth, love, holiness, wisdom) but he is the full expression of these qualities. The Bible’s way of putting this truth into words is to say that God is love, he is light, he is truth (John 14:6; 1 John 1:5; 4:16; see LOVE; LIGHT; TRUTH). (In the present article many of the qualities, or attributes, of God can be mentioned only briefly. For fuller details see the separate articles as indicated.)
Eternal and independent
Since it is impossible to give a complete definition or description of God, the Bible makes no attempt to do so. In addition, it forbids the use of anything in nature or anything made by human hands as a physical image of God, for such things can lead only to wrong ideas about God (Exod 20:4-5; Deut 4:15- 19; see IDOL, IDOLATRY). When Moses asked for a name of God that would give the Israelites some idea of his character, the name that God revealed to him was ‘I am who I am’ (Exod 3:14). The name was given not to satisfy curiosity, but to tell God’s people that their God was independent, eternal, unchangeable and able always to do what he, in his absolute wisdom, knew to be best. (Concerning this and other names of God see YAHWEH.) God’s existence cannot be measured according to time, for he is without beginning and without end. He is eternal (Ps 90:2; Isa 48:12; John 5:26; Rom 1:23; 16:26; 1 Tim 1:17; Rev 1:8; 4:8; see ETERNITY). He is answerable to no one. He does not need to give reasons for his decisions or explanations of his actions (Ps 115:3; Isa 40:13-14; Dan 4:35; Acts 4:28; Rom 9:20-24), though in his grace he may sometimes do so (Gen 18:17-19; Eph 1:9). His wisdom is infinite and therefore beyond human understanding (Ps 147:5; Isa 40:28; Dan 2:20; Rom 11:33; 16:27; see WISDOM). A God who is infinite has no needs. Nothing in the works of creation or in the activities of humans or angels can add anything to him or take anything from him (Ps 50:10-13; Acts 17:24-25; Rom 11:36). He is under obligation to no one, he needs no one, and he depends on no one. Whatever he does, he does because he chooses to, not because he is required to (Eph 1:11). But, again in his grace, he may choose people to have the honour of serving him (Ps 105:26-27; Acts 9:15).
Majestic and sovereign
As the creator and ruler of all things, God is pictured as enthroned in majesty in the heavens (Ps 47:7; 93:1-2; 95:3-5; Heb 1:3; see GLORY). Nothing can compare with his mighty power (Isa 40:12-15; 40:25- 26; Jer 32:17; Rom 1:20; Eph 1:19-20; 3:20; see POWER). God is the possessor of absolute authority and nothing can exist independently of it (Ps 2:1-6; Isa 2:10-12,20-22; 40:23; see AUTHORITY). He maintains the whole creation (Ps 147:8-9; Matt 5:45; Col 1:17), he controls all life (Deut 7:15; 28:60; Job 1:21; Ps 104:29-30; Matt 10:29) and he directs all events, small and great, towards the goals that he has determined (Gen 45:5-8; Ps 135:6: Prov 16:33; Isa 10:5-7; 44:24-28; 46:9-11; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; John 11:49-53; Acts 2:23; 17:26; Rom 8:28; Eph 1:11; see PREDESTINATION; PROVIDENCE). Yet people have the freedom to make their own decisions, and they are responsible for those decisions (Deut 30:15-20; Isa 1:16-20; Matt 27:21-26; Rom 9:30-32). There are no limits to God’s knowledge or presence. This is a cause for both fear and joy: fear, because it means that no sin can escape him; joy, because it means that no one who trusts in his mercy can ever be separated from him (Ps 139:1-12; Prov 15:3; Isa 40:27-28; 57:15; Jer 23:24; Heb 4:13). God is not only over all things, but is also in all things (Acts 17:24,27-28; Eph 4:6). Since God is sovereign, people must submit to him and obey him. Refusing to do this, they rebel against him. They want to be independent, but instead they become slaves of sin (Gen 3:1-7; John 8:34; see SIN). They cannot escape God’s judgment through anything they themselves might do. They can do nothing but repent of their rebellion and surrender before the sovereign God, trusting solely in his grace for forgiveness (Acts 17:30-31; Eph 2:8; see GRACE). The rebellion of sinners, though in opposition to God, does not destroy God’s sovereignty. God allows evil to happen, but he never allows it to go beyond the bounds that he has determined (Job 1:12; see EVIL; SATAN). God still works according to his purposes, for his own glory. He still causes to happen whatever does happen, even to the salvation of rebellious sinners (Isa 14:24; 37:26; Matt 25:34; Acts 2:23; Eph 1:5; 3:20; see ELECTION).
Invisible yet personal
From the above it is clear that God is not an impersonal ‘force’, but a personal being. He has knowledge, power, will and feelings. Human beings also have knowledge, power, will and feelings, but that does not mean that God is like a human being (Hosea 11:9). On the contrary, human beings have these attributes only because God has them; for they have been made in God’s image (Gen 1:26; see IMAGE). Being spirit, God is invisible (John 4:24; Rom 1:20; 1 Tim 1:17; Heb 11:27). Since human language cannot properly describe a person who has no physical form, the Bible has to use pictures and comparisons when speaking of God. It may speak of God as if he has human features, functions and emotions, but such expressions should not be understood literally (Gen 2:2; Num 12:8; Deut 29:20; 33:27; Ps 2:4; John 10:29; Heb 4:13). Not only is God a person, but believers are so aware of a personal relationship with him that they can collectively call him ‘our God’ and individually ‘my God’ (Acts 2:39; Phil 4:19). They have an increased appreciation of God’s character through their understanding of Jesus Christ; because, in the person of Jesus Christ, God took upon himself human form and lived in the world he had created (John 1:14,18; 14:9; Col 1:15; see JESUS CHRIST). God is the Father of Jesus Christ (Mark 14:36; John 5:18; 8:54) and through Jesus Christ he becomes the Father of all who believe (Rom 8:15-17; see FATHER).
Unchangeable yet responsive
Although God is personal, he is unchangeable. Everything in creation changes, but the Creator never changes (Ps 33:11; Mal 3:6; Heb 1:10-12; 1 Peter 1:24). This does not mean that God is mechanical, that he has no emotions, or that he is the helpless prisoner of his own laws. What it means may be summarized from two aspects. Firstly, the unchangeability of God means that, because he is infinite, there is no way in which any of his attributes can become greater or less. They cannot change for either better or worse. God can neither increase nor decrease in knowledge, love, righteousness, truth, wisdom or justice, because he possesses these attributes in perfection (Exod 34:6-7). Secondly, God’s unchangeability means that he is consistent in all his dealings. His standards do not change according to varying emotions or circumstances as do the standards of human beings. His love is always perfect love, his righteousness is always perfect righteousness (Heb 6:17-18; James 1:17). God’s unchangeable nature guarantees that every action of his is righteous, wise and true. We must not understand God’s unchangeability to mean that he is unmoved by human suffering on the one hand or human rebellion on the other. In his mercy he may have compassion on the weak, and in his wrath he may punish the guilty (Exod 2:23-25; 32:9-10; James 5:4; 1 Peter 3:12). He may change his treatment of people from blessing to judgment when they rebel (Gen 6:6-7; 1 Sam 15:11,23) or from judgment to blessing when they repent (Joel 2:13-14; Jonah 3:10). This does not mean that events take God by surprise and he has to revise his plans. He always knows the end from the beginning, and he always bases his plans on his perfect knowledge and wisdom (Num 23:19; 1 Sam 15:29; Isa 14:24; 46:9-10; Rom 11:29).
Righteous yet loving
When the Bible speaks of God as holy, the emphasis is not so much on his sinlessness and purity as on his ‘separateness’ from all other things. A thing that was holy, in the biblical sense, was a thing that was set apart from the common affairs of life and consecrated entirely to God. God is holy as the supreme and majestic one who exists apart from all else and rules over all (Exod 15:11; Isa 40:25; John 17:11; Rev 4:8-9; 15:4; see HOLINESS). Any vision of such a holy God overpowers the worshipper with feelings of awe, terror and unworthiness (Job 40:1-4; Isa 6:1-5; Hab 3:3,16; Rev 1:17). Since holiness means separation from all that is common, it includes separation from sin. Therefore, God’s holiness includes his moral perfection. He is separate from evil and opposed to it (Hab 1:12-13). The Bible usually speaks of this moral holiness of God as his righteousness (Ps 11:7; 36:6; Isa 5:16; Heb 1:9; 1 John 3:7; see RIGHTEOUSNESS). God’s attitude to sin is one of wrath, or righteous anger. He cannot ignore sin but must deal with it (Ps 9:8; Isa 11:4-5; Jer 30:23-24; Rom 1:18; 2:8; see WRATH; JUDGMENT). But God is also a God of love, grace, mercy and longsuffering, and he wants to forgive repentant sinners (Ps 86:5; 145:8-9; Rom 2:4; Titus 3:4; 2 Peter 3:9; 1 John 4:16; see LOVE; PATIENCE). His love is not in conflict with his righteousness. The two exist in perfect harmony. Because he loves, he acts righteously, and because his righteous demands against sin are met, his love forgives. All this is possible only because of what Jesus Christ has done on behalf of sinners (Rom 3:24; see PROPITIATION). The God who is the sinners’ judge is also the sinners’ saviour (Ps 34:18; 50:1-4; 1 Tim 2:3; 2 Tim 4:18; Titus 3:4- 7; see SALVATION).
GOLGOTHA
The name Golgotha, which is a transliteration of an Aramaic word meaning ‘skull’, was the name of the hill just outside Jerusalem where Jesus was crucified (Matt 27:33; Luke 23:33; John 19:17). (The name Calvary is not in the original New Testament, but has been taken from the Vulgate, a fourth century Latin translation. It comes from the Latin word for ‘skull’.) There is no certainty about which of several possible sites is Golgotha or how the hill got its name. But it was on a main road not far from one of Jerusalem’s city gates, and a garden containing a tomb was nearby (Matt 27:39; John 19:20,41).
GOMORRAH
The city of Gomorrah was located near Sodom but, like Sodom, it was destroyed almost four thousand years ago. Its remains probably lie buried beneath the Dead Sea. (For details see SODOM.)
GOOD WORKS
Salvation from sin and condemnation comes not by human good works but by divine grace, and people receive this salvation through faith (Eph 2:8-9; Titus 3:5-7). No good deeds that people do can remove their sin, cancel its penalty, or make them acceptable to God (Isa 64:6; Rom 3:20; 8:7-8; 9:31- 32). God forgives sin and declares people righteous solely on the basis of what Christ has done on their behalf (Rom 3:23-26; 2 Cor 5:21; see JUSTIFICATION). Once they have been saved, however, God’s will is that they do good works. In fact, this is one purpose for which God saved them (Eph 2:10; Titus 2:14).
Christians will be equipped to carry out these good works as they learn more of the nature and purposes of God through the Scriptures (2 Tim 3:16-17; 2 Peter 3:18). Such good works will be of benefit to themselves as well as to others, and will be the means of bringing praise to God (Matt 5:16; Titus 2:7; 3:8; 1 Peter 2:12). They are one of the proofs of genuine faith (James 2:18), and arise from love and gratitude to God because of his free salvation (1 Thess 1:3; Heb 6:10). Good works are no cause for pride. They are, after all, part of the Christian’s duty (Luke 17:10). Nevertheless, Christians must carry out their good works not in a hard or legalistic spirit, but in an attitude of genuine love for others and with a clear conscience. They should be concerned with bringing praise to God, not to themselves (Rom 13:8-10; 1 Cor 10:31; Heb 13:18). In the day of judgment God will test the works, good or otherwise, of all Christians. Those they have done out of selfishness or pride will bring no lasting benefit; those they have done for God’s sake and according to his standards will bring an eternal reward (Matt 6:1; 1 Cor 3:11-15; 2 Cor 5:10; Rev 22:12; see JUDGMENT; REWARD).
GOODNESS
People have always had difficult defining goodness. But whereas philosophers may struggle to define the abstract, the Bible talks about the concrete. It helps people understand goodness not by discussing the concept of goodness, but by pointing to people or things that are good. When a young man questioned Jesus about moral goodness, Jesus replied by referring him not to a concept, but to a person – God. The way to understand goodness is through the person who is good and whose works are good (Matt 19:17). God’s character reveals his goodness.
It is a character that combines love, mercy, patience, faithfulness, justice, holiness and wrath in perfect balance (Exod 33:19; 34:5-7; Ps 86:5; Rom 11:22). The biblical words translated ‘good’ contained a range of meanings, such as pleasant, beneficial, fitting, beautiful and honourable (Gen 1:4; Deut 6:18; Job 2:10; Eph 5:9). The added meaning that the words acquire in the Bible is largely because of their association with God.
The goodness that the Bible teaches is the goodness that exists perfectly in God (Ps 100:5). This goodness was demonstrated in the life and ministry of Jesus (Acts 10:38), and the Holy Spirit wants to reproduce it in the lives of Christians (Gal 5:22). All that God does is good (Ps 119:68; 136:1; Acts 14:17; 1 Tim 4:4). His people should recognize this, even when they meet hardships and difficulties (Job 2:10; Matt 7:11; Rom 8:28; Heb 12:10; James 1:17; see also CHASTISEMENT). God desires the welfare of all, and therefore he wants people to do good (Isa 1:17; 5:20; Gal 6:10). Though good works will not earn them salvation (for salvation is the gift of God and is received by faith), once they have received salvation they have an obligation to produce good works (Eph 2:8-10; Titus 2:14; see GOOD WORKS). Likewise, although the law of God is good (Ps 119:39; Rom 7:12,16), obedience to the law will never produce a satisfactory standard of goodness (Rom 7:18-19). The reason for this is the sin that still infects human nature (Rom 7:13-14; see FLESH). But the believer can produce goodness through the power of the indwelling Spirit (Gal 5:22).
GOSHEN
Goshen was the territory where the family of Jacob settled in Egypt. It was in the East Nile Delta and was suitable for raising flocks and herds (Gen 47:1-6). The descendants of Jacob lived there for about four hundred years, and during that time they multiplied enormously. The royal city of Rameses, which the Egyptians forced the Israelites to build by slave labour, was in Goshen (Gen 47:6,11,27; Exod 1:11; 12:37). Goshen was largely protected from the plagues that fell on other parts of Egypt during the time of Moses’ conflict with Pharaoh (Exod 8:22; 9:26). (See also EGYPT.)
GOSPEL
In simple terms ‘gospel’ means ‘good news’. When God’s Old Testament people Israel were in captivity in Babylon and God announced to them that he was going to release them and bring them back to their homeland, that was good news (Isa 40:9; 52:7; 61:1-2). When Jesus came to release people from the bondage of Satan and give them new life, that too was good news (Luke 4:16-19).
Based on facts
The gospel that Jesus Christ proclaimed was that the promises God gave to Old Testament Israel were now fulfilled in him. The promised kingdom of God had come, and salvation was available to all who would repent of their sins and trust in him for forgiveness (Mark 1:14-15; see KINGDOM OF GOD). Early Christian preachers, such as Peter, John, Stephen and Paul, preached the same message. But whereas Jesus’ preaching of the gospel was during the period leading up to his death and resurrection, the early Christians’ preaching followed his death and resurrection. They therefore laid great emphasis on Jesus’ life, death and resurrection as historical facts that no one could deny. Those facts were the basis of the gospel they preached (Acts 2:22-42; 3:12-26; 7:1-53; 13:17-41; 1 Cor 15:1-7). There is only one gospel (Gal 1:6-9). It is called the gospel of God, or the gospel of the grace of God, to emphasize that it originates in God and his grace (Acts 20:24; Rom 15:16; 1 Thess 2:2,8; 1 Tim 1:11). It is called the gospel of Christ, or the gospel of the glory of Christ, to emphasize that it comes only through Jesus Christ (Rom 15:19; 2 Cor 2:12; 4:4; 9:13). It is called the gospel of the kingdom, the gospel of salvation and the gospel of peace, to emphasize that those who believe it enter God’s kingdom and receive eternal salvation and peace (Matt 9:35; Eph 1:13; 6:15).
A message of life
Because the gospel is inseparably linked with the great truths of God’s saving work through Christ, ‘gospel’ has a meaning far wider than simply ‘news’. It refers to the whole message of salvation, and even to salvation itself (Mark 8:35; 10:29; Rom 1:1-4; 1:16-17; Eph 3:7; 1 Peter 1:25; see JUSTIFICATION; SALVATION). Through it the power of God works, bringing life to those who accept it, and destruction to those who reject it (Rom 1:16; 2 Cor 4:3; Heb 4:2). Sometimes the single word ‘gospel’ is used for the body of Christian truth, or even for the whole new way of life that comes through Jesus Christ (Rom 16:25; Phil 1:7,27). God entrusts the gospel to Christians so that they might preserve it and pass it on to others (Gal 2:7; 1 Thess 2:4; 1 Tim 1:11). Therefore, while it is God’s gospel, it becomes in a sense their gospel (Rom 2:16; 1 Thess 1:5; 2 Tim 2:8). Christians have a responsibility to spread this gospel worldwide, even though it may mean sacrificing personal desires and suffering personal hardships. They will carry out the task gladly when they appreciate what God’s love has done for them through Christ (Matt 24:14; Mark 16:15; 1 Cor 9:16,23; 2 Cor 5:14; Eph 6:19-20; 1 Thess 2:2; see EVANGELIST; MISSION).
GOSPELS
Traditionally, the first four books of the New Testament have been called Gospels, probably because they record the gospel, or good news, of the coming of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world. Questions that naturally arise are why there should be four such books and why three of those books should contain so much material that is similar.
Preserving the message
After the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, his followers spread the good news of salvation through him, firstly in Jerusalem, and then throughout Palestine and neighbouring countries. They taught the stories and teachings of Jesus to their converts, who memorized them and passed them on to others (Matt 28:18-20; Acts 2:42; 2 Tim 2:2). As the years passed, those who had seen and heard Jesus became fewer in number and more widely scattered. To preserve what these men taught concerning Jesus, various people began making written collections of things Jesus had said and done (Luke 1:1). There is no certainty concerning how or when the four Gospels were written. There is, however, enough evidence from within the books and from other first century sources to make the following explanation a possibility.
Three related accounts
Mark’s Gospel appears to have been the first written. Mark had assisted the apostle Peter on missionary journeys that took them through the northern parts of Asia Minor and brought them eventually to Rome (cf. 1 Peter 1:1; 5:13). When Peter left Rome, Mark stayed behind, and was still there when Paul arrived as a prisoner, accompanied by Luke and Aristarchus (about AD 60; Acts 27:2; 28:16,30). (In letters Paul wrote from Rome, he mentions that Mark, Luke and Aristarchus were all with him; Col 4:10,14; Philem 24.) The Roman Christians asked Mark to preserve Peter’s teaching for them, and this resulted in the writing of Mark’s Gospel (see MARK, GOSPEL OF). Meanwhile Luke also had been preparing an account of the life of Jesus. No doubt he had done much of his research during the two years he had just spent in Palestine with Paul (Acts 24:27). Others had already written accounts of the life of Jesus (Luke 1:1), and Luke was able to gather material from these and from people still living in the region who had seen and heard Jesus. Upon meeting Mark, Luke took some of Mark’s material and added it to his own to fill out his record and so bring the book to completion. Luke wrote his Gospel for a person of importance (perhaps a government official) named Theophilus, to give him a trustworthy account of the origins of Christianity (Luke 1:1-4; see LUKE, GOSPEL OF). (Luke continued the story with a second volume, which recorded the spread of Christianity from Jerusalem to Rome; Acts 1:1; see ACTS, BOOK OF.) Matthew’s Gospel appears to have been written about ten years later. It was intended for Christians who were of Jewish background but who read Greek freely. The book shows a strong interest in the fulfilment of God’s purposes concerning Israel’s Messiah, and the responsibility of the Messiah’s people to spread his message to the Gentiles. The place most commonly suggested for the writing of such a book is Antioch in Syria, which was closely connected with the Jewish churches of Palestine and with the mission to the Gentile nations (Acts 11:19-22,27-29; 13:1-4; 14:26-27; 15:1-3,22,30; see MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). By this time, Mark’s Gospel had become widely known. Since it represented Peter’s account of Jesus’ ministry, it was well respected, and Matthew saved himself a lot of work by using material from it extensively in his own book. (About 90% of Mark is found in Matthew.) There is also a lot of material common to Matthew and Luke that is not found in Mark. This material is commonly referred to as Q and probably came from one or more of the many writings that had appeared over the years (Luke 1:1). It consists mainly of teachings and sayings from Jesus, in contrast to stories about him. Because of the parallels between Matthew, Mark and Luke, the three books are often referred to as the Synoptic Gospels (meaning Gospels that ‘see from the same viewpoint’). However, each contains material of its own that has no parallel in the other Gospels. In Mark this amount is very small, less than 5%. In Matthew the amount is about 28% and in Luke about 45%.
A different kind of book
John’s Gospel bears little similarity in form or style to the other three Gospels, though the general sequence of recorded events is the same. John wrote within the last decade or so of the first century, by which time the other three Gospels were widely known. His purpose was not to produce another narrative-type account of Jesus’ ministry, but to use selected stories of Jesus, particularly his teachings, to instruct people in basic truths concerning Jesus’ unique person and ministry. Many people in the region where John lived (probably Ephesus) were troubled by false teachers. Some of these teachers denied that Jesus was fully divine, others that he was fully human. John wanted people to be convinced that Jesus was the Messiah, the Son of God, and to find true life through him (John 20:30-31). John’s Gospel therefore consists mainly of teaching, much of which comes from the recorded words of Jesus himself. In contrast to the Synoptic Gospels, action stories are comparatively few. Less than 10% of John’s material is found in the Synoptics (see JOHN, GOSPEL OF).
GOSSIP
An ancient Israelite proverb expresses the truth that the more people talk, the more they are liable to sin (Prov 10:19). This is one reason why the Bible constantly urges people to control their tongues (Ps 141:3; Prov 16:23; 17:27-28; James 1:19; 3:7-10). It is very easy to gossip. What starts as idle talk can easily lead to exaggerations, half-truths and false impressions, all of which can do much damage (James 3:2,5). Gossip can become a habit; worse still, an enjoyable habit (Prov 11:13; 18:8).
In spreading rumours, people may have the deliberate intention to slander others (Ps 31:13; 50:20; Prov 10:18; Rom 3:8) or they may just be foolish chatterers (Prov 26:20; Eccles 5:3; Matt 12:36), but either way they will probably cause trouble (Prov 26:18-20). God links gossip with some of the most hateful sins (Rom 1:29-30), and constantly warns his people against it (Ps 101:5; Prov 10:19; 2 Cor 12:20; James 4:11; 1 Peter 2:1). All who are in positions of leadership or influence must be especially careful not to gossip (1 Tim 3:11; Titus 2:3). (See also TONGUE.)
GOVERNMENT
God is the supreme ruler of the world and he desires that all countries be governed orderly and justly. He is the source of all authority and he has given to governments, as his representatives on earth, the authority to administer society (Jer 27:5; Dan 4:17; John 19:11). Citizens therefore have a responsibility to obey the laws of their country (Rom 13:1-2; cf. Jer 29:4-7). Christians share in this responsibility. Since they know that the authority of government comes from God, they should give their obedience willingly (Rom 13:5; 1 Peter 2:13-15).
The role of government
Two of the basic functions of civil government are to promote the well-being of society and to restrain wrongdoing in society. God has given to governments the right to reward good conduct and punish wrongdoing (Rom 13:4). Governments exist for the benefit of the people, and should want to control affairs so that citizens can live peacefully and contentedly (1 Tim 2:1-2). Christians are taught to cooperate with the government in pursuing these goals, and at the same time to maintain their loyalty to God (Mark 12:17; Rom 13:5-7; Titus 3:1; 1 Peter 2:17). They have a duty to pay taxes to the government for the benefits they receive from it, and a duty to be loyal to God because of all he has done for them (Luke 20:25; Rom 13:6-7). Tensions will arise, however, when the ruling authorities pass laws that are unjust or anti-God. The only obligation to absolute obedience that God’s people have is obedience to God. They may find that if they are to maintain their loyalty to him, they have to disobey the government. As a result they may suffer penalties (Dan 3:8-12; 6:13,16; Matt 10:18; Acts 5:29,40; 1 Peter 4:12-16). If that is the case, they must, like Christ, accept suffering without retaliation, praying for their persecutors and committing their cause to God (1 Peter 2:20-23; cf. Exod 3:7; Dan 3:16-18; Luke 6:28; 23:34; 1 Tim 2:1-2; see PERSECUTION). At the same time God’s people should be concerned about the government’s behaviour. At times they may decide to speak and act in support of the principle of justice that the government is supposed to administer (Isa 3:14; 5:22-23; Micah 3:1-3; Acts 16:35-39; 22:25; 25:10-11).
The sort of response that God’s people make to unjust government action will depend to some extent on what rights citizens have in their country. In some countries Christians are in a similar position to Christians of New Testament times, having no rights in deciding who governs them or how they are governed. In other countries the citizens themselves decide who governs them, and they can openly try to influence government decisions. In such countries Christians can not only pray for God’s will to be done on earth, but they can actively work for those values of justice, freedom, morality, honesty and compassion that God desires for human society (Matt 6:10). One difficulty in all societies is that those in a position to bring about social change are the least likely to want it, for they are the ones who benefit most from the existing order (Isa 3:14-15; Ezek 34:4; Amos 5:11-12). Jesus refused to use violence, either to protect what was good or remove what was bad (Matt 26:52; John 18:36), but he did not keep silent when he saw disadvantaged and defenceless people ignored or exploited (Matt 21:13; 23:4,23; 25:42-45; Mark 12:20; Luke 6:24-25; 16:19-26; cf. Amos 2:6- 7; Micah 2:1-2; Zeph 3:3; see JUSTICE). This does not mean that the church should try to govern society. That is not the church’s job. God has entrusted the government of society to civil authorities, not to the church (Rom 13:1,4). When governments misuse their God-given authority, God holds them responsible (John 19:10-12). In due course he will deal with them, in whatever way and with whatever means he chooses (1 Kings 11:29-37; Isa 1:23-26; Dan 5:24-28; Amos 6:4-7; Micah 3:1-4; Rev 18:1-2,24).
Limitations of government
Although governments can help society by their efforts to promote good and oppose evil, the basic problems of human sin cannot be overcome merely through government action. The primary concern of Christianity is not to change society in the hope that people might improve, but to change people so that through them society might improve. The gospel is basic to God’s work among the people of the earth, and Christians must proclaim that gospel (Eph 4:17-24; Titus 2:14; see GOSPEL). But they cannot ignore problems in a society of which they are part (Amos 6:4-6). They have a joint responsibility to work positively for what is good (Matt 5:13) and openly condemn what is wrong (Matt 14:4; Eph 5:11). As Christians understand more of God and his Word, they will understand more of the sort of life God wants for people. The Creator knows what is best for his creatures, and his standards are best, not just for Christians but for everyone. Yet if Christians, even with the help of God’s indwelling Spirit, cannot live perfectly according to God’s standards, non-Christians have much less chance.
Because of the hardness of the human heart, God’s ideal may be too high a standard to aim at in the laws that a government makes for society as a whole (Matt 19:8). While Christians may seek the highest standards for themselves and may try to persuade others to accept those standards, they cannot expect the government to enforce those standards by law (e.g. Matt 5:39-42). Human society has been so spoiled by sin that when a government makes laws, it may be forced to choose the lesser of two evils. That does not mean there is a change in God’s standards. What was formerly evil is still evil. It does not become good simply because the government makes laws to regulate it (e.g. Matt 19:3-10). Christians, therefore, should not be satisfied merely with doing what is legal (for something that is legal may still be morally wrong), but with doing what is right (Matt 5:21-24,46-48). The laws of the state may represent the minimum requirements for an ordered society; Christian morality goes beyond that, even to a person’s thoughts and motives (Matt 5:27-29; see ETHICS).
GRACE
There is much in the Bible about grace, partly because there is much in the Bible about sin. Grace is the undeserved favour of God. People repeatedly sin and rebel against God, yet God in his grace is still ready to forgive them when they repent (Exod 34:6; Rom 5:20).
Saved by God’s
grace The only way people have ever been forgiven their sin and saved from condemnation is by God’s grace, and they receive this salvation through faith (Eph 2:8). People have never been saved through obeying the law or offering sacrifices (Rom 3:24-26; Gal 3:17-22). (Concerning the purpose of Old Testament regulations given to Israel see COVENANT; LAW; SACRIFICE.) So much is grace a characteristic of God that the Bible calls him the God of grace (1 Peter 5:10; see also LOVE; MERCY). He chooses to save people because of his sovereign grace alone, not because of their good works (Rom 11:6; Eph 1:5-6; see ELECTION). Many of the stories that Jesus told illustrate God’s grace (e.g. Matt 18:23-34; 20:1-16; Luke 7:36-50; 14:16-24; 15:11-32), but Jesus himself is the greatest demonstration of God’s grace (John 1:14). He demonstrated that grace not only by the way he lived (John 1:17; 2 Cor 8:9), but particularly by his death on the cross (Rom 3:24-25; Gal 2:21; Heb 2:9). Through Jesus’ death, God can forgive freely all who repent of their sins and trust in him. More than that, God brings them into a right relationship with himself and declares them righteous (Rom 3:23-24; 4:5; 5:2; 1 Cor 1:4; Titus 2:11; 3:4-5). (For further discussion on God’s work of grace through the death and resurrection of Jesus see FORGIVENESS; JUSTIFICATION; PROPITIATION; RECONCILIATION.)
God’s grace in the lives of believers
Although salvation is a gift of God’s grace and not a reward for good works, that is no reason for Christians to ignore good works. They are not free to live as they like or sin as they like. God’s grace continues to work in their lives, giving them the inner power to discipline themselves, to do good, to endure suffering and to triumph over temptation (Rom 6:14-15; 2 Cor 12:9; 2 Tim 2:1; Titus 2:11-14; see FREEDOM; GOOD WORKS). They can carry out their Christian service properly only because God in his grace has given them the ability to do so (Rom 12:6). God exercised his grace towards believers before they were born. That same grace operates continually towards them throughout life and will continue to be active towards them throughout the ages to come (Gal 1:15; Rom 5:2,21; Eph 2:7; 1 Tim 1:12-16). Paul’s practice was to begin and end his letters by speaking of the grace of God, or the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ. In this way he indicated that he was always conscious that the believer’s whole life is lived in the atmosphere of God’s grace (Rom 1:7; 16:20; 1 Cor 1:3; 16:23; Gal 1:3; 6:18).
GRAPES
From very early times grapes were widely grown throughout the Middle East (Gen 9:20; 14:18). Grape growing was well established in Canaan long before the Israelites arrived (Num 13:20,24; Deut 6:11). The Israelites in turn carried on grape growing as one of their main agricultural activities (Judg 9:27; 14:5; 21:20; Song of Songs 1:14; 7:12; Amos 4:9; 5:11,17).
Vineyards
A vineyard was usually a rectangular area planted with rows of grape vines and surrounded by a hedge to keep out animals and thieves. Often it contained a tower where a person could keep watch over the workers (Song of Songs 2:15; Isa 5:1-2; Matt 20:1; 21:33). Workers usually pruned the vines in the spring, using specially made pruning hooks (Joel 3:10; John 15:2). They harvested the grapes in summer and, in keeping with Israelite harvesting practices, whatever they did not gather at the first picking they left for the poor (Lev 19:10; Deut 24:21; Obad 5). People ate grapes fresh and sometimes dried them to make raisins (Num 6:3; 1 Sam 25:18), but most of the grapes they crushed to make wine. They did this by trampling the grapes in a wine press, which was a pit hollowed out of solid rock (Isa 5:2; 16:10; 63:2; Matt 21:33; Rev 14:19-20). Vines and vineyards provided prophets and teachers with useful illustrations. Old Testament writers likened Israel to God’s vineyard. God took Israel from Egypt and planted it in a good land, doing everything possible for it so that it might bear fruit for him. But Israel failed to produce the fruit that God desired. God therefore ceased to look after it, with the result that enemies plundered and destroyed it (Ps 80:8-13; Isa 5:1-7). Jesus on occasions used illustrations from the vineyard, mainly to contrast the Jews’ rejection of him with the Gentiles’ acceptance (Matt 20:1-15; 21:28-41). He also used the illustration of the grape vine, to show that if people truly are disciples, they will demonstrate it by the fruits that their union with him produces (John 15:1-11).
Wine
Processes of making wine were well known in the ancient world (Gen 9:20-21; Isa 25:6; Jer 48:11). People kept the fermented wine in earthenware pots or goatskin bags, though when goatskin bags became old and brittle they could not stand the pressure of new wine (Jer 13:12; 35:5; Mark 2:22). Wine was a common drink of the Israelites, in both Old and New Testament times, and was one article of daily food that they offered to God in sacrifice (Exod 29:40; Lev 23:13; Deut 11:14; 18:4; Judg 19:19; Jer 40:10; Matt 11:19). They considered a good supply of wine, along with other articles of daily food, to be one of God’s blessings (Gen 14:18; 27:28; Deut 7:12-13; Prov 9:1-6; Isa 55:1). People associated wine with merriment and joy (Ps 104:15; Eccles 9:7; Zech 10:7; John 2:1-10), though too much wine could lead to dullness of mind, unfitting behaviour and drunkenness (Prov 31:4-5; Isa 28:7; Hosea 4:11; Hab 2:15; 1 Peter 4:3; Rev 17:2). Israelite law therefore disallowed wine completely for certain people, such as priests and others who set themselves apart to God for special service (Lev 10:9; Num 6:3; Jer 35:8; Luke 1:15).
The possibility of drunkenness brought strong warnings concerning the dangers of wine (Prov 20:1; 23:20; 23:29-35; Rom 13:13; 14:21; Eph 5:18). Drunkenness disqualified a person from a position of leadership among God’s people (Isa 28:1-3; 56:9- 12; 1 Tim 3:8; Titus 2:3). Wine had some medicinal value and was used to help heal wounds and illnesses (Prov 31:6; Luke 10:34; 1 Tim 5:23). When mixed with spices it could help deaden pain. But when such a mixture was offered to Jesus on the cross, he refused it (Mark 15:23). The wine (vinegar) that he drank shortly after was the common wine of the people, not drugged wine. Jesus’ purpose in asking for it was not to deaden his pain, but to moisten his mouth so that he could announce his final triumphant words loud enough for all to hear (Mark 15:36-37; John 19:28-30). (For the significance of wine in the Lord’s Supper see LORD’S SUPPER.)
GREECE
Only occasionally does the Bible mention Greece by that name, though it frequently mentions parts of Greece. The ancient land of Javan, for instance, was possibly part of Greece (Gen 10:4; Isa 66:19; Ezek 27:13). In local language, Greece was Hellas, and Greeks were Hellenes. Greece’s influence on the world of the New Testament came through events resulting from the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC. Yet, though there was a Greek Empire, there was no ‘official’ Greek nation. The country known today as Greece consisted in those times of various separate states. The most important of these was the northern state of Macedonia, which was the centre of the Greek Empire (Acts 16:12; 2 Cor 8:1; see MACEDONIA). In New Testament times the region referred to as Greece was the southern part of the Greek peninsular known as Achaia (Acts 19:21; 20:1-2; see ACHAIA).
The Greek Empire
The rise of Greek power in the pre-Christian era was rapid and spectacular. Alexander the Great, having come to power in Macedonia in 336 BC, rapidly overran what remained of the Persian Empire, and within a few years ruled a region that stretched from Greece to India (Dan 8:5-7,20-21; 11:2-3). Wherever they went, the Greeks established their rich culture. The Greek language became the most widely spoken language throughout the Empire, Greek architecture spread through the building of magnificent cities, and Greek philosophy changed the thinking of people everywhere (1 Cor 1:20-22). The Greeks brought progress to those they governed, and provided a standard of education, entertainment, sport and social welfare that their subjects had not known previously. Those who accepted this Greek culture were regarded as civilized; all others were regarded as barbarians (Rom 1:14). Alexander, however, died while at the height of his power (323 BC), and within a short time his vast empire was divided among his generals (Dan 8:8,22; 11:4). By 301 BC the main divisions were a western sector based on Greece, and two eastern sectors based respectively on Syria to the north and Egypt to the south. At first Israel fell within the Egyptian sector and enjoyed a period of relative peace. During that time a group of seventy Jewish scholars translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek. This translation is known as the Septuagint (after the number of translators) and is usually referred to by the symbol LXX. In New Testament times both Jews and Christians used the Septuagint as well as the Hebrew Old Testament (see SEPTUAGINT). Greek rulers in the Egyptian sector gave themselves the name Ptolemy. Some of the later Ptolemies became hostile to the Jews, but conditions worsened further when the Syrian sector conquered Egypt and brought Israel under its control (198 BC; Dan 11:14-16). Greek rulers in the Syrian sector were known as the Seleucids, after the name of the king who founded the dynasty. Most of the kings gave themselves the name Antiochus, after Antioch, the capital of the Seleucid kingdom that the founder of the dynasty built in 300 BC (Acts 11:20; 13:1; see ANTIOCH IN SYRIA).
Greek influence in Israel
After more than a century of Greek rule, Israel was feeling the heavy influence of Greek customs and ideas on the traditional Jewish way of life. Divisions began to appear among the Jewish people. Some Jews welcomed this Greek influence, even in their religion, because in this way they were able to win political favours from the Greek rulers and so gain important positions in the Jewish religious system. Other Jews firmly opposed all Greek influence, particularly Greek political influence in Jewish religious affairs. When fighting broke out in Jerusalem between rival Jewish factions, the Seleucid king (Antiochus IV Epiphanes) welcomed the opportunity to deal with the Jews. He invaded Jerusalem, slaughtered all Jews who resisted, made others slaves, burnt the Jewish Scriptures, forced Jews to eat forbidden food and compelled them to work on the Sabbath day. Worse still, he set up a Greek altar in the Jewish temple, then took animals that the Jews considered unclean and sacrificed them to the Greek gods. To the Jews this was ‘the awful horror’ (GNB), ‘the abomination that makes desolate’ (RSV) (Dan 11:31). But Antiochus failed to realize that the Jews would not stand idly by and allow him to destroy their religion.
Resistance to Greek domination
The Jews’ fight for religious freedom began through the zeal of an aged priest named Mattathias. He and his five sons (known as the Maccabees, after Judas Maccabeus, his son and the group’s leader) escaped from Jerusalem, prepared a small army, and after about three years overthrew the pro-Greek party of priests. They then cleansed and rededicated the temple, restoring it to their people for traditional Jewish worship (165 BC). From that time on the Jews celebrated the event in the annual Feast of Dedication (John 10:22). Such an astonishing victory encouraged the Maccabees (also known as the Hasmoneans, after their old family name) to keep fighting till they had won political freedom as well. But the religiously strict Jews, who opposed Greek political interference in the Jewish religion, likewise opposed the Maccabees’ drive for political power. Eventually these opposing viewpoints produced two parties that divided the Jewish people, the Sadducees and the Pharisees. The Sadducees wanted political power, but the Pharisees were content with religious freedom (see PHARISEES; SADDUCEES). In spite of this opposition, the Maccabees carried on the war and after twenty years won political independence (143 BC). However, the Jews were now clearly divided. On one side were the pro-political priests and leaders, who were rich, powerful and favoured by the Hasmonean rulers. On the other side were the anti-political traditionalists, who were poor, powerless and favoured by the common people. The Jews were free of Greek rule, but they were weakened by internal divisions and within eighty years they fell to Rome (63 BC).
New Testament times
Though the Romans had succeeded the Greeks as rulers of the region, Greek was still the most widely spoken language. It was the common language of the Roman Empire as it had been of the Greek Empire (John 19:20; Acts 21:37; Rev 9:11; see HELLENIST). Because one language was spoken everywhere, Christianity could spread more quickly (Acts 14:1; 19:10). Greek was also a rich language, able to express fine differences of thought and meaning. It was well suited to be the language of the New Testament, through which God revealed and preserved the teachings of the Christian gospel. The New Testament records that many people of Greek origin became believers in Jesus and were active in Christian service. As early as the time of Jesus, certain Greeks had become interested in the new teaching that Jesus brought (John 12:20). In the period covered by the book of Acts, Greeks in different places responded to the preaching of the apostles (Acts 14:1; 17:4,12,34; 18:4) and churches were established throughout Greece itself, both in Macedonia and in Achaia (Acts 16:12; 17:1-4,10-12; 18:1-4; see ATHENS; BEREA; CORINTH; PHILIPPI; THESSALONICA). Sometimes the name ‘Greek’ was used as another name for Gentiles in general (Mark 7:26; Acts 19:17; Rom 1:16; 10:12; Gal 3:28).
GUIDANCE
Life involves the constant making of decisions, both major and minor, and believers naturally want to make decisions that are in accordance with God’s will. They may believe that God is their guide (Ps 48:14) and they may pray for his guidance (Ps 31:3), but they can be assured of his guidance only on certain conditions. They must trust him fully, accept his authority in every part of their lives, and make every effort to live righteously (Prov 3:5-7).
A Christian mind
Many of life’s decisions may be plainer than people think. Often what is required is not a special direction from God, but simply obedience to plain instructions that God has already given (e.g. Eph 4:25,28,32; see OBEDIENCE). However, people must know what is in the Bible if they are to obey it (2 Tim 3:15-17; cf. John 13:17). As believers increase their understanding of the Bible, their thinking gradually changes. They learn to think ‘christianly’, even about issues where the Bible gives no direct instruction. Their minds are transformed by the Holy Spirit through the Word, and this helps them to know God’s will and do what pleases him (Rom 12:2; Col 1:9-10; 3:10; cf. John 16:13; see KNOWLEDGE; MIND). If people allow their lives to be directed by the Spirit through the Word, and if they do not selfconfidently trust in their own wisdom, they can be assured that God will guide their decisions (Ps 25:8- 10; Prov 3:5-7). He promises to give wisdom to those who in humility and faith ask for it (James 1:5-6; see PRAYER; WISDOM). He also encourages believers to discuss matters with those whose insight and experience can help them see issues more clearly (Prov 12:15; 1 Cor 7:1). God does not want Christians to be uncertain or timid in the way they live. He wants them to think, pray, discuss and decide, and then to act confidently upon their decisions (Acts 6:3; 13:2-3; 15:25,28,36; 20:16; Rom 15:24-26; Titus 3:12). As they exercise their spiritual judgment in making decisions, they will grow towards maturity (Phil 1:9-11; Heb 5:14). On occasions, however, God may choose to direct people not so much through their minds as through compelling inner feelings, or even through dreams and visions (Acts 8:29; 10:9-16; 16:9; see DREAM; VISION).
Faith in practice
Christians believe that God controls all the affairs of life and works through those affairs for their good (Rom 8:28; Phil 1:12). They may believe that in certain circumstances God ‘opens a door’ and gives opportunities (1 Cor 16:8-9), and in others he ‘closes a door’ and denies opportunities (Acts 16:6-7). But circumstances in themselves are not always clear guidance. Favourable circumstances could be a temptation to take the path that is most naturally pleasing. Unfavourable circumstances could be a temptation to avoid the path that looks unpleasant (James 1:2-3,14; see TEMPTATION). Circumstances are not God’s guidance for a certain action if that action is itself contrary to what the Bible clearly teaches (1 Sam 26:7-9). God wants people to live their everyday lives positively, in a way that reflects the character of their salvation. He wants them to act in faith rather than ask for signs (2 Cor 5:7; cf. Matt 16:4); yet he may graciously give signs to those whose faith is not strong (Judg 6:16-18,36-40; Matt 12:20). Christians should do what is right regardless of circumstances, rather than allow their circumstances to determine what they do (Phil 4:11-13). God does not want people controlled outwardly, as if they are no better than animals controlled by a harness. He wants people controlled inwardly, as the spirit of God renews their minds after the likeness of Jesus Christ (Ps 32:8-9; Eph 4:22-24).