HADES
The Greek word hades was used in Bible times as the equivalent of the Hebrew word sheol, the name used in the Old Testament for the world of the dead. This world of the dead was the shadowy destiny that awaited all people, whether good or bad (Acts 2:27; cf. Ps 16:10; for details see SHEOL). With Christ’s conquest of death, there was no need to fear the world of the dead any longer. Hades was a fearful place only to those who would not trust in Christ. Hades spoke therefore of more than death in general; it spoke of the separation from God that followed death in the afterlife (Matt 11:23; 16:18; Rev 20:13-14). In general, however, the word that the New Testament usually used for the place of eternal punishment was not hades but gehenna. This was a place of fiery torment (Matt 18:9; see HELL).
HAGAR
God promised Abraham and Sarah they would have a son through whom God would build a nation that would be his people. When Sarah was unable to bear children for Abraham, she suggested he try to produce a son through their Egyptian slave-girl, Hagar. Any child so born would legally belong to Abraham and Sarah (Gen 16:1-3). Abraham followed Sarah’s suggestion, with the result that Hagar bore him a son, Ishmael. God made it clear, however, that this was not the child he had promised (Gen 17:15-19). Ishmael would have a notable line of descendants, but God’s covenant people would come through the child of Sarah yet to be born, Isaac (Gen 17:20-21). Years later, after the birth of Isaac, trouble arose between Sarah and Hagar. This resulted in the expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael from Abraham’s household (Gen 21:8-14). In the New Testament Paul uses the story of Sarah and Hagar to illustrate the conflict that exists between those who are God’s children through faith in his promises and those who are slaves to the law of Moses. The two cannot live together. Just as Abraham’s household had no place for the slave Hagar, so God’s family has no place for those who are slaves to the law (Gal 4:21-31).
HALLELUJAH
Originally the word ‘hallelujah’ was a combination of parts of two Hebrew words, meaning ‘praise’ and ‘Jehovah’ (‘Yahweh’). It has been transliterated into Greek and English as ‘hallelujah’ and means ‘praise the Lord’. It was used mainly to open or close hymns of praise in public worship (Ps 106:1,48; 112:1; 113:1; 115:18; 146:1,10; 147:1,20; 150:1-6; Rev 19:1,3-4,6; see also PRAISE).
HAMATH
The city of Hamath was situated in the north of Lebanon, at the end of the Lebanon ranges and on the edge of the Syrian plain. In the time of David its leaders were friendly with Israel (2 Sam 8:9-10), and in the time of Solomon it was controlled by Israel (2 Chron 8:3-4). After Solomon’s death it regained its independence, but it again came briefly under Israelite control during the reign of Jeroboam II (2 Kings 14:25). At the northern end of the Lebanon ranges was a prominent gap known as ‘the entrance of Hamath’, where Lebanon opened on to the plains of Syria. This gap, or pass, marked Israel’s ideal northern boundary (Josh 13:5; Amos 6:14), but only in times of unusual growth and prosperity was it the actual boundary (2 Kings 14:25). (For further details see LEBANON.)
HANNAH
As one of the two wives of Elkanah, Hannah lived in a household where there was unhappiness and tension. Elkanah’s other wife, Peninnah, mocked Hannah because of Hannah’s inability to have children (1 Sam 1:2-8). In her distress Hannah cried to God for a son, promising that if God answered her prayer she would give her son back to God to serve him for life. God gave her a son and she named him Samuel (1 Sam 1:9-20). When Samuel was two or three years old, Hannah took him to the tabernacle and dedicated him to God for life. Features in her thanksgiving prayer reappear in the thanksgiving prayer of Mary the mother of Jesus (1 Sam 2:1-10; cf. Luke 1:46-55). When Hannah returned home, she left Samuel with the priest Eli, who was to bring him up as a dedicated servant of God. Hannah visited Samuel regularly and helped provide for his needs (1 Sam 2:11,18-20). After Samuel, Hannah had five more children (1 Sam 2:21).
HATRED
Hatred, in the sense of a deep-seated ill-feeling towards another person, is condemned as being one of the evil results of sinful human nature. It is the opposite of love and should not be found in the lives of God’s people (Lev 19:17; Matt 5:44; Gal 5:20; Col 3:8; 1 Peter 2:1; 1 John 4:20). People whose lives are under the power of sin hate what is good, hate those who are righteous, and hate God (1 Kings 22:8; Ps 69:4; Micah 3:2; John 3:20; 15:18,23-25; 17:14). God’s people, by contrast, are not to hate those who hate them, but do them good (Luke 6:27). But they must hate wickedness, just as God hates it (Ps 97:10; 119:104; Prov 6:16-19; Isa 61:8; Heb 1:9; Jude 23; Rev 2:6). Sometimes the Bible uses the word ‘hate’ in a special sense that has nothing to do with either the bitterness or the opposition outlined in the examples above. It is used in a situation where a choice has to be made between two things or two people. One is chosen, or ‘loved’, the other is rejected, or ‘hated’ (Gen 29:30-31; Mal 1:2-3; Luke 14:26-27; John 12:25; Rom 9:10-13).
HAZAEL
God told the prophet Elijah that Hazael of Syria would be God’s instrument to punish Israel for its Baal worship during the reign of Ahab (1 Kings 19:15-17). Elijah’s successor, Elisha, wept when he saw the suffering that the cruel Hazael would bring upon Israel (2 Kings 8:12-15). Hazael began his brutal attacks on Israel during the reign of Ahab’s son Joram (2 Kings 8:28-29). The attacks became more widespread during the reign of the next king, Jehu (2 Kings 10:31-33). They even spread into Judah, with attacks on coastal towns and on the capital, Jerusalem (2 Kings 12:17-18). Israel lost further territory to Hazael during the reign of Jehoahaz, and gained some relief only after Hazael’s death (2 Kings 13:1-3,22-25). Israel looked longingly for the day when it would see a just punishment poured out on Syria because of Hazael’s cruelty (Amos 1:3-5).
HAZOR
Before Israel’s conquest of Canaan, Hazor was the chief city of the far northern region of Canaan. When the armies of Israel entered Canaan under Joshua, they conquered Hazor and burnt it (Josh 11:1,10- 11). In the division of Canaan that followed, Hazor fell within the tribal area of Naphtali (Josh 19:32,36). Later the local people regained control of Hazor and rebuilt the city, though in due course the Israelites drove them out (Judg 4:2,23-24). In the reign of Solomon, Hazor became Israel’s main defence outpost on its northern frontier (1 Kings 9:15).
HEAD
In most languages and cultures, a characteristic of everyday speech is to use the names of parts of the body (eyes, head, hands, feet, etc.) figuratively as well as literally. People in Bible times, for example, often referred to the head in a figurative sense. This was because they considered the head to be in some way representative of the whole person (1 Kings 2:32; Acts 18:6). People in Bible times might therefore show their shame or grief by covering the head, throwing dust on the head, or shaving the head (2 Sam 15:30; Isa 15:2; Jer 14:3; Rev 18:19). By contrast people were honoured by the anointing or crowning of the head (Ps 23:5; Prov 4:9; Mark 14:3; Heb 2:9). Lifting up the head symbolized victory (Ps 3:3; 27:6; 110:7); hanging the head symbolized shame or grief (Lam 2:10; Luke 18:13). When used figuratively of people or nations, ‘head’ could indicate leadership or authority (Deut 28:13; Judg 11:9; 1 Sam 15:17). The rulers of Israel were called the heads of Israel (Micah 3:1). By New Testament times the figurative usage of ‘head’ was largely concerned with its being the source of life and the seat of authority.
This is clearly seen in Christ’s headship of the church. As the head is both the source and controller of the body’s life, so Christ is the source of the church’s life and has supreme authority over it (Eph 1:22; 4:15-16; Col 1:18; 2:10,19). Another form of headship is found in the marriage relationship. The husband’s headship of the wife results from the different responsibilities given to each as created by God. For the Christian husband and wife, this relationship should be patterned on Christ’s self-sacrificing love for the church and the church’s obedient love for Christ (Eph 5:23-25). Although the husband’s headship means that he has a certain authority, it does not mean that he is superior. There is an equality in status, though a difference in function. The husband is head of the wife in the same way as God the Father is head of God the Son. Yet the Son, though under the Father’s authority, is equal with him (1 Cor 11:3; cf. John 5:19; 8:28-29; 10:30; 14:9-10; see HUSBAND; WIFE).
HEALING
Ultimately God is the only one who can heal, because he is the only one who can undo the effects of sin. Sickness and suffering are characteristics of a world that has been spoiled by sin (Gen 3:16-19), and healing is part of God’s gracious work in caring for his wayward creatures (Exod 15:26; 2 Kings 1:3-4; Ps 103:3). Jesus’ miracles of healing showed his power over all the evil consequences of sin, and indicated that the kingdom of God had come (Matt 4:23; 8:17; 9:35; see MIRACLES). When that kingdom reaches its fulfilment in the new heavens and the new earth, all healing will be complete (Rev 22:1-4; cf. Rom 8:19- 23).
Usually it is not possible to give a specific theological explanation of a particular suffering that a person experiences. However, in those cases where the suffering is a direct result of personal sin, God’s healing is a sign also of his forgiveness (Ps 32:1-5; 41:3-5,11-12; John 5:13-14; James 5:15-16; see SUFFERING). God may choose to heal people miraculously (Num 12:1-15; 2 Kings 5:8-14; Matt 8:2-3; John 4:46- 54; 5:8-9), or by normal processes (2 Kings 20:1-7; Phil 2:27-30; 2 Tim 4:20), or not at all, depending on his sovereign will (2 Cor 12:7-10). He may protect people from diseases or he may not (Exod 15:26; 32:35; Job 1:12; 2:5-6; Jer 24:10).
On some occasions God may heal out of his love and compassion, without a request from the afflicted (Matt 14:14; Luke 4:40); on other occasions he may heal in response to the faith of the afflicted (Matt 9:27-30; Mark 5:34; 10:52; James 5:14-15). He heals those who have ordinary diseases and those who are demon possessed (Matt 8:16; Luke 4:41; see DISEASE; UNCLEAN SPIRITS). Jesus gave his disciples a share in his healing powers, so that they could help him spread the message of the kingdom of God throughout Israel (Matt 10:5-8). These disciples continued this healing ministry in the early days of the church (Acts 3:1-11; 9:33-34). As the church spread, God gave similar gifts to other people (Acts 8:5-7; 14:9-10; 28:8-9). God’s desire was that, as such people used their healing gifts in cooperation with other gifts he had given to other people, the church would enjoy well balanced growth (1 Cor 12:9,11,28-31).
HEART
Both Old and New Testaments speak repeatedly of the heart as the centre of a person’s inner life. An examination of the hundreds of references to the heart in the Bible will show that the word is not limited in its meaning to one particular part of a person. ‘Heart’ may refer to a person’s whole inner life – what the person really is (1 Sam 16:7; Ps 22:26; Prov 4:23; Matt 22:37; 1 Thess 2:4); or it may refer to attributes of human personality such as a person’s understanding (1 Kings 3:9; Prov 2:10; 1 Cor 2:9; Eph 1:18), desires (Deut 24:15; Prov 6:25; Matt 6:21; Rom 1:24), feelings (Judg 19:6; Prov 14:10; 15:30; John 14:27; James 3:14), determination (Exod 8:15; 1 Kings 8:58; Rom 6:17; Col 3:22), or character (1 Sam 13:14; Jer 5:23; Rom 2:29; 2 Thess 3:5; 1 Peter 3:4). Sometimes ‘heart’ is used as another word for a person’s spirit (Ps 51:10,17; Ezek 36:26), soul (Deut 4:29; Prov 2:10; Acts 4:32) or mind (1 Sam 2:35; Eph 1:18; Heb 8:10; cf. Matt 22:37).
(See also HUMANITY, HUMANKIND; MIND; SOUL; SPIRIT.) The heart is what is sometimes referred to as ‘the inner being’, and is the source of all the wrong that a person does (Prov 6:14,18; Jer 17:9; Mark 7:21-23; Rom 1:24-25; Eph 4:18; see SIN). Therefore, the heart must be cleansed to bring forgiveness; or, to use another picture, it must be re-created to bring new spiritual life. Only God can bring about this cleansing or re-creation (Ps 51:10; Ezek 36:26; Acts 8:21-22; Eph 3:16; Heb 10:22). Since the heart determines actions, a person must be careful to have right attitudes of heart at all times (Lev 19:17; Ps 4:4; 1 Tim 1:5; James 3:14). God sees the inner condition and judges the person accordingly (1 Sam 16:7; Ps 44:21; Matt 5:8; Rev 2:23; see also CONSCIENCE)
HEAVEN
People in ancient times did not understand the universe the way we understand it today. For them the universe consisted of ‘the heavens and the earth’. The earth was where they lived and the heavens were the skies above, the place of the sun, moon, stars, clouds and birds (Gen 1:1,17,20; 15:5; Deut 4:19; 1 Kings 18:45; Matt 5:18; Heb 11:12). A characteristic of human speech is that people often speak of realities and experiences beyond their understanding as being ‘over’, ‘above’ or ‘higher than’ them. Consequently, it was natural for people to speak of God as dwelling far, far above them in the highest place they could imagine, namely, heaven (Deut 26:15; 1 Kings 8:30,32; Ezra 1:2; Ps 2:4; Matt 5:45; 6:9; 7:21).
The Bible therefore speaks of heaven as being ‘up’; not in the sense that it occupies a particular location in outer space, but in the sense that it represents a state of existence far beyond anything people can experience in the physical world. The Jews so identified heaven with God that they often used the word ‘heaven’ instead of ‘God’. This was also a sign of respect for God, for it prevented them from using his name irreverently (Dan 4:26; Matt 19:23-24; Luke 15:18; John 3:27; see KINGDOM OF GOD). Heaven is the dwelling place not only of God, but also of the angelic beings who worship him (Neh 9:6; Matt 18:10; 28:2; Mark 13:32; Luke 2:15).
Jesus Christ came from heaven (John 3:31; 6:38), returned to heaven after his death and resurrection (Acts 1:11; Eph 1:20), at present appears in heaven on behalf of his people (Col 3:1; Heb 8:1; 9:24) and will one day return from heaven to save his people and judge his enemies (Acts 1:11; 1 Thess 4:16-17; 2 Thess 1:7-9). Through the grace of God, heaven becomes also the eternal dwelling place of all those who through faith have become God’s children (John 14:1-3; 2 Cor 5:1-2; Col 1:5; Heb 12:22-23; 1 Peter 1:3-5). For them, to be for ever in the presence of God is to be in paradise (Luke 23:43; 2 Cor 5:8; Phil 1:23; cf. 2 Cor 12:2-3). From the present viewpoint of earth, no one has any way of knowing what life in heaven will be like (1 John 3:2). No doubt people will be identifiable in heaven by their individual personalities just as they are on earth. The form of life, however, will be different from the form of life in the present world (cf. Matt 22:23-30; 1 Cor 15:35-44,50; see RESURRECTION).
When the Bible writers refer to some of the features of heaven, they are not giving literal descriptions of physical characteristics of heaven. They are merely using the only language available to them to try to illustrate and describe life as it will be in an entirely new order of existence (Matt 22:30; 26:29; John 14:2; Heb 12:22-23; 1 John 3:2). This new order will find its fullest expression in what the Bible calls ‘a new heaven and a new earth’. This again distinguishes it from the physical universe as we know it at present (Isa 66:22; 2 Peter 3:13; Rev 21:1-22:5). Although the Bible writers give few details of life in the new order, that life will not be one of laziness or idleness. It will be a life of joyful activity in the worship and service of God (Rev 5:8- 14; 14:2-3; 22:3).
HEBREW
The name ‘Hebrew’ comes from Eber, a descendant of Shem, the son of Noah. This means that the Hebrews were one of the Semitic peoples, Semites being those descended from Shem (Gen 10:21,25). Abraham was a Hebrew, being descended from Shem through Eber (Gen 11:10-26; 14:13). The descendants of Abraham, therefore, were also Hebrews (Gen 39:17; 40:15; 43:32). In time the meaning of the name ‘Hebrew’ became more restricted in that it applied only to those who were descendants of Abraham through Isaac and Jacob. In other words, ‘Hebrew’ became simply another name for ‘Israelite’ (Exod 1:15; 2:6,11; 3:18; 5:3; 21:2; 1 Sam 4:6; 13:19; 14:11; 29:3; Jer 34:9; Jonah 1:9; Acts 6:1; 2 Cor 11:22; Phil 3:5). A third name, which came into use later, was ‘Jew’, and this has remained in common use till the present day (Jer 34:9; John 1:19; Acts 2:5; Rom 11:1; see JEW). (Concerning Hebrew as the language of the Old Testament see MANUSCRIPTS.)
HEBRON
Hebron was a very old settlement in the south of Canaan. It was situated at the point where two main highways crossed, the north-south route from central Canaan to Egypt, and the east-west route from the Dead Sea to the Mediterranean coast (for map see PALESTINE). Hebron was also known as Kiriath-arba and Mamre. Abraham, Isaac and Jacob all lived in the region at various times, and Abraham bought a piece of ground there for a family burial place (Gen 13:18; 18:1; 23:2,17-20; 25:9; 35:27; 37:14; 50:13). At the time of Israel’s conquest under Joshua, Hebron’s local inhabitants were a tall powerfully built people whom many thought could never be conquered (Num 13:21-28,31-33).
Caleb, however, believed otherwise (Num 13:30). Not only did he defeat them, but he received their territory as his family possession (Josh 14:12-15). Hebron, in the centre of this territory, became one of the three cities of refuge established west of Jordan (Josh 20:7-9; 21:9-13). The town fell within the tribal allotment of Judah and soon became the chief town of the tribe. For seven years it was the capital of David’s kingdom, till he conquered Jerusalem and made it his new capital (2 Sam 5:1-5). When Absalom tried to overthrow David, Hebron was the base from which he launched his rebellion (2 Sam 15:7-10). A later king, Rehoboam, recognized Hebron’s strategic situation on the main highways, and fortified it as a key defence outpost (2 Chron 11:5-12).
HEIR
See INHERITANCE.
HELL
It is unfortunate that many of the older versions of the English Bible use the one word ‘hell’ to translate several words in the original languages. In the minds of most English-speaking people, hell is a place of terrible torment where the wicked dead are sent for final punishment. Although this idea of hell may be true for the word gehenna, it is not true for other biblical words translated ‘hell’. The Hebrew sheol and its Greek equivalent hades mean simply the place of the dead or the state of the dead. Gehenna was the name Jesus used for the place of final punishment of the wicked. The word appears in the New Testament as a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew ‘Valley of Hinnom’. The Valley of Hinnom was a place just outside the wall of Jerusalem where, in times of apostacy, the people of Israel burnt their children in sacrifice to the god Molech (Jer 7:31).
In the place where the people committed this wickedness, God punished them with terrible slaughter (Jer 7:32-34). Broken pottery was dumped in this valley, and the place became a public garbage dump where fires burnt continually (Jer 19:1-13). Because of this association with judgment and burning, ‘gehenna’ became a fitting word to indicate the place or state of eternal punishment (Matt 10:28; 18:9; 23:33; Mark 9:43-48; cf. James 3:6). According to the New Testament, the punishment of hell (gehenna) is one of eternal torment. It is likened to eternal burning (Matt 13:42; 18:8-9; Rev 20:10), eternal darkness (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 2 Peter 2:4,17), eternal destruction (Matt 7:13; Phil 1:28; 2 Peter 3:7,10) and eternal separation from God and his blessings (2 Thess 1:9). Another symbolic picture of eternal punishment is that of a lake of fire prepared for the enemies of God (Rev 19:20; 20:10; cf. Matt 25:41). Into this lake God throws his great enemy, Death (Rev 20:14; cf. 1 Cor 15:26), along with all whose names are not written in the book of life (Rev 20:15). Just as heaven is something far better than the material symbols used to picture it, so hell is something far worse than the material symbols used to picture it. (See also JUDGMENT; PUNISHMENT.)
HELLENIST
During the last three centuries BC, Greek culture and language spread across the whole of the eastern Mediterranean region (see GREECE). Many Jews no longer spoke their native language, Hebrew, nor the related language, Aramaic, that had largely replaced it. The language they spoke was Greek, and because of this they were known as Hellenists (from the word hellas, meaning Greece). Within Palestine, however, there were still many Aramaic-speaking Jews. Inevitably, tension arose between these and the Hellenists.
In the early Jerusalem church the Greek-speaking Jews complained that their widows were being unfairly treated in the daily distribution of food. To solve the problem the church chose seven officials whom the apostles appointed to oversee the matter. It appears from the names of these officials that they were Hellenists (Acts 6:1-6). When the Jerusalem Jews began to persecute the Christians, the Hellenist Christians were driven from Jerusalem. They preached the gospel wherever they went, to non-Jews as well as to Jews, and were the chief cause of the church’s early expansion. Hellenists in many provinces became Christians, along with many God-fearing Greeks (Acts 8:1,4; 11:19-21; 13:43; 14:1; 17:1-4,10-12; 18:5-8; see also DISPERSION; PROSELYTE). Meanwhile the Aramaic-speaking Jews back in Jerusalem became a source of further trouble to the church (Acts 21:20-21,40).
HERESY
According to common usage today, heresy is false belief or false teaching. It is the misguided opinion of someone who denies the orthodox teaching of the Bible. However, the word is used in this sense only once in the New Testament. Elsewhere it means sect or party. The Sadducees and Pharisees were sects within Judaism (Acts 5:17; 15:5). Orthodox Jews considered the Christians a Jewish sect who followed Jesus the Nazarene (Acts 24:5,14; 28:22). When used by Christians, the word referred to factions created within a church through lack of love towards others (1 Cor 11:19). Those who created such factions showed that they were directed by the flesh, not by the Spirit (Gal 5:20). Such people were to be warned, then avoided, if they did not cease their divisive practices (Titus 3:10). Because false teachers created factions, the word ‘heresy’ developed its more familiar meaning of ‘false teaching’. The one biblical reference to heretics in this sense is to false prophets who deny Christ. By their belief they destroy themselves and by their teaching they destroy others (2 Peter 2:1; cf. 1 John 2:22,26; 4:1-3).
HERMON
Mount Hermon was in the far north of Palestine, at the southern end of the Lebanon Range. It was known to the Lebanese as Mt Sirion. The ancient Amorites called it Mt Senir (Deut 3:9; see also LEBANON). It was the highest mountain of the region, and water from its snow-covered heights was a major source of the Jordan River (Jer 18:14). It was included in the territory God promised to Israel, but Israel’s control never extended beyond its southern foothills (Josh 11:16-17).
HEROD
Several rulers bearing the name ‘Herod’ feature in the New Testament record. Chief of these was Herod the Great, from whom the other Herods took their name. The prominence of the Herods had its origins in the confusion and corruption associated with Rome’s rise to power just before the opening of the New Testament era.
Herod the Great
When Rome took control of Judea in 63 BC, it appointed as ruler a man who proved to be weak and easily used by others. He was very much under the influence of a part-Jewish Idumean friend, Antipater, who was carefully and cunningly planning to gain control himself. (Idumea was a region in the south of Judea. It was inhabited by a mixture of Arabs, Jews and the remains of the nation once known as Edom.) In the end Antipater won Rome’s appointment as governor of Judea, with his two sons in the top positions beneath him.
Throughout that period, the entire eastern Mediterranean region was troubled by power struggles and bitter conflicts, one of which resulted in Antipater being murdered and his two sons overthrown. One of these sons, who had developed even greater cunning than his father, escaped to Rome, where he persuaded the Romans to appoint him ‘king’ over the entire Palestine region. This was the person who became known as Herod the Great. Through treachery and murder, Herod removed all possible rivals. Having made his position safe, he took firm control of Palestine and ruled it for the next thirty-three years (37-4 BC). He carried out impressive building programs, two of his most notable achievements being the rebuilding of the city of Samaria (which he renamed Sebaste) and the construction of Caesarea as a Mediterranean port. In Jerusalem he built a military fortress, government buildings, a palace for himself and a magnificent temple for the Jews (Matt 27:27; Mark 13:1; John 2:20; 19:13; Acts 23:10,35). In spite of Herod’s attempts to win Jewish support, the Jews hated him. This was partly because of his mixed-Jewish nationality (though he had adopted the Jewish religion) and partly because of his ruthlessness in murdering any that he thought were a threat to his position. His massacre of the Bethlehem babies was one example of his butchery (Matt 2:1-5,13,16-18).
Other members of Herod’s family
Before he died (4 BC), Herod divided his kingdom among his three sons. Like their father, they could rule only within the authority Rome gave them. The southern and central parts of Palestine (Judea and Samaria) were given to Archelaus, a man as cruel as his father but without his father’s ability (Matt 2:22). The northern part of Palestine (Galilee) and part of the area east of Jordan (Perea) were given to Herod Antipas, the man who later killed John the Baptist and who agreed to the killing of Jesus (Mark 6:14-29; Luke 3:1; 23:6-12). The regions to the north and east of Lake Galilee (Iturea and Trachonitis) were given to Philip, a man of more moderate nature than the rest of his family (Luke 3:1). This man was half-brother to another Philip (mentioned in Mark 6:17).
Archelaus was so cruel and unjust that in AD 6 the people of Judea and Samaria asked Rome to remove him and rule them directly. From that time on, Judea and Samaria were governed by Roman governors (or procurators) until the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. The only exception to this was the brief ‘reign’ of Herod Agrippa I, a grandson of Herod the Great. In AD 37 he took control of the former territory of Philip, and in AD 39 took control of the former territory of Herod Antipas. In AD 41 he gained Judea and Samaria, and for the next three years ruled virtually the whole area that Herod the Great once ruled (Acts 12:1-4,20-23). Upon his death in AD 41, Judea and Samaria returned to the rule of Roman governors. Herod Agrippa II, son of Herod Agrippa I, received territories in the far north of Palestine, where he served Rome loyally from AD 48 to the destruction of the Jewish state in AD 70. He was an expert on Jewish affairs and bore the ceremonial title of king, but he had no authority over the Jews of Judea (Acts 25:13; 26:3,27,31). His sisters were Bernice and Drusilla (Acts 24:24; 25:13).
HERODIANS
The Herodians appear to have been a group of Jews who, unlike most of the Jews, were favourable to the rule of the Herods. Though the Pharisees would normally not be sympathetic to the Herodians, they were willing to cooperate with them in trying to find a way to have Jesus accused of law-breaking and, if possible, killed (Matt 22:15-17; Mark 3:6).
HESHBON
The city of Heshbon was situated on the tableland of Moab, about twenty kilometres east of the point where the Jordan River enters the Dead Sea. It was a chief city of Moab, till lost to the Amorites. The Amorites in turn lost it to the Israelites just before their attack on Canaan (Num 21:25-26; Deut 3:2). When the conquered territories were divided among Israel’s tribes, Heshbon fell within the tribal area of Reuben (Num 32:2-5,37; Josh 13:15-21; Judg 11:26). (For map and other details see MOAB.) Several centuries later, during the time of Israel’s divided kingdom, Moab regained possession of Heshbon. But the city was doomed to destruction in the divine judgment that was to fall upon Moab (Isa 15:1,4; 16:8; Jer 48:1-2,45; 49:3).
HEZEKIAH
At the time of Hezekiah’s accession to Judah’s throne, his country was in a sad condition. The policies of Ahaz had left Judah economically weak, politically dominated by Assyria, and religiously corrupted through false religions (see AHAZ). Upon becoming king, Hezekiah set out on the bold task of strengthening the nation’s economy, overthrowing Assyrian domination, and reforming Judah’s religion. This latter achievement won him praise as being Judah’s greatest king to that time (2 Kings 18:1-8).
Religious reforms
The prophets of Hezekiah’s time (he reigned from 716 to 687 BC) were Hosea, Isaiah and Micah. Hosea was by this time very old (cf. Hosea 1:1), Isaiah was very influential around the palace (Isa 1:1; 38:1) and Micah was preaching with such authority that the king was taking good notice of him (Micah 1:1; Jer 26:17-19). Yet none of the prophets records Hezekiah’s reforms. Perhaps this was because the prophets were more concerned with the spiritual attitudes of people than with the revised procedures for temple worship. Hezekiah began his reforms by assembling the priests and Levites and telling them plainly that neglect of the temple and its services was the reason for God’s anger with Judah (2 Chron 29:1-11). He then sent them to cleanse and rededicate the temple. The common people responded to his reforms with such enthusiasm that the temple officials were unable to cope with all the sacrifices (2 Chron 29:12-36). After this, Hezekiah arranged a great Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread (2 Chron 30:1-12). He insisted, however, that before joining in the festival, people ceremonially cleanse themselves and remove all traces of false religion from Jerusalem (2 Chron 30:13-22). Having cleansed Jerusalem of false religion, Hezekiah then cleansed the country areas (2 Chron 31:1). His desire was that the nation as a whole follow the religious order laid down by Moses and developed by David. He therefore organized the priests and Levites according to David’s plan, and arranged for their proper financial support through the orderly payment and distribution of the people’s tithes and offerings (2 Chron 31:2-19). Some of Hezekiah’s leading officials made a collection of Solomon’s proverbs to instruct the people further (Prov 25:1).
Political achievements
Assyrian influence in Palestine was at its peak during the time of Hezekiah. In the early part of his reign Assyria conquered the northern kingdom Israel and carried the people into captivity (722 BC; 2 Kings 17:6; 18:9-12). Meanwhile in the south, Hezekiah was busy strengthening Judah’s independence. He improved its economy, increased its agricultural production, fortified its defences and improved Jerusalem’s water supply (2 Chron 32:27-30). He then revolted against Assyria by refusing to pay further tribute (2 Kings 18:7). As expected, Assyria sent its army to attack Judah, but Hezekiah had prepared Judah well and had equipped Jerusalem to withstand the siege (2 Kings 18:13; 2 Chron 32:1-6). He had also made a defence agreement with Egypt that he hoped would guarantee success. Isaiah opposed this dependence on Egypt. Judah’s need was for quiet faith in God, not for military help from a foreign country (Isa 30:1-3,15; 31:1,3,5,8). The Assyrian attack was far more damaging to Jerusalem than Hezekiah had expected. Even when the Assyrians had forced Hezekiah to pay them large amounts of money, they did not retreat. They were preparing to crush Jerusalem completely (2 Kings 18:14-37). On two occasions Hezekiah went in great distress to the temple to ask God’s help, and on both occasions Isaiah brought God’s reassuring answer (2 Kings 19:1-7,14-34). The outcome was that God intervened and dramatically overthrew the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:35-37). Hezekiah had at one time become so sick that it appeared he would die. In answer to his prayers, God extended his life by fifteen years, enabling him to lead Judah through its period of conflict with Assyria (2 Kings 20:1-11). In gratitude to God, Hezekiah wrote a song of praise for his recovery (Isa 38:9-22). Throughout this period Babylon was increasing in power and was looking for allies to help it conquer Assyria. An illness of Hezekiah gave the Babylonians the opportunity to visit him, in the hope of persuading him to join them against Assyria. Hezekiah was easily persuaded. He was very anti-Assyrian and very proud that his achievements for Judah had attracted Babylon’s admiration (2 Kings 20:1-13; 2 Chron 32:24-25,31). Once again Isaiah condemned Hezekiah’s willingness to enter into foreign alliances, for it would result in conquest by the allied nation (2 Kings 20:14-19). Hezekiah repented of his wrongdoing and completed his reign with Judah’s independence still intact (2 Chron 32:26).
HIGH PLACES
See BAAL.
HIRAM
As king of Tyre in Lebanon, Hiram (or Huram) had always enjoyed good relations with the Israelite kings to the south. He helped David to build a palace (2 Sam 5:11) and later helped Solomon in his extensive building projects. He provided Solomon with huge amounts of materials and many skilled workmen in return for great quantities of farm produce (1 Kings 5:1-18). He lent Solomon money, in payment of which Solomon offered to give him a large section of Israel’s northern territory (which bordered Lebanon) (1 Kings 9:10-14). The two kings also formed a trade alliance and became partners in a profitable shipping operation (1 Kings 9:26-28; 10:22). (For further details of Hiram’s relations with Israel see SOLOMON.) Another man named Hiram (or Huram) also features in the biblical record of this period. He was a highly skilled craftsman, also from Lebanon, whom Hiram the king sent to Jerusalem to do the bronze work and other decorations for Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 7:13-14,40-46; 2 Chron 2:7,13-14).
HITTITES
The Middle Eastern political power known as the Hittite Empire lasted from about 1800 to 1200 BC. It extended from northern Palestine across Syria and into Asia Minor. Tidal, king of Goiim, was possibly a Hittite king of the era before the Empire was fully established (Gen 14:1). Even after the Empire had collapsed, Syria was still sometimes referred to as the land of the Hittites. Likewise the people of various states and cities in Syria still called themselves Hittites (Josh 1:4; 2 Sam 24:6; 1 Kings 10:29; 11:1; 2 Kings 7:6).
However, the Hittites most often mentioned in the Bible are not those of the ancient Hittite Empire in the north, but those of smaller tribal groups in Canaan. They were probably the descendants of migrants from earlier Hittite kingdoms, and formed one of the many tribal groups that occupied Canaan before the conquering Israelites drove them out (Gen 15:20; Exod 3:8; 23:28; Deut 7:1; Josh 3:10; Ezra 9:1). The main area where the Hittites of Canaan lived was the central mountain region. This included the towns of Bethel, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron and Beersheba (Gen 23:2-16; 26:34; Judg 1:23,26; 2 Sam 23:39; Ezek 16:3). The Hittites were among the many Canaanite groups whom Solomon used as slaves in his building programs (1 Kings 9:20-21). Eventually they were absorbed into the Israelites and so ceased to be a distinct racial group.
HIVITES
Among the many tribal groups that occupied Canaan before the Israelites dispossessed them were the people known as Hivites (Gen 10:15-17; Exod 3:8; 23:28; Deut 7:1; Josh 3:10). They lived mainly in the mountain country of northern Palestine and Lebanon (Josh 11:3; Judg 3:3; 2 Sam 24:6-7), though some lived in Shechem and others as far south as Gibeon (Gen 34:2; Josh 9:3,7; 11:19). They were among the many Canaanite tribal peoples used as slaves in Solomon’s building programs (1 Kings 9:20-21). Like other Canaanite groups they were eventually absorbed into Israel.
HOLINESS
The Hebrew word usually translated ‘holy’ had a much wider meaning than the English word ‘holy’. To most English-speaking people ‘holiness’ usually indicates some ethical quality such as sinlessness or purity. To the Hebrews the word originally indicated the state or condition of a person or thing as being separated from the common affairs of life and consecrated wholly to God. (In Hebrew, also in Greek, the words ‘holy’ and ‘sanctify’ come from the same root.)
Ideas of separation for God
God was considered holy, because he was separate from ordinary people, and indeed from all created things (Exod 15:11-12; Ps 99:3; Isa 6:3; 8:13; Rev 3:7; 4:8). Israel was holy, because it belonged to God and was cut off from the religions and customs of the surrounding peoples (Exod 19:6; Deut 7:6). The Sabbath and other religious days were holy, because they were separated from the common days of the workaday world (Exod 31:15; Lev 23:4,21,24). People who were removed from secular life and consecrated to the service of God were holy (Lev 21:6-8). Places and land withdrawn from common use and set apart for sacred use or given to God were holy (Lev 6:16; 27:21). Besides obviously holy things such as places of worship, less obvious things such as clothing, oils, food and produce were also holy if they were set apart for God (Exod 29:29-33; 30:25; 40:9; Lev 27:30; Matt 7:6; 23:17; Acts 6:13). The relation of a person or thing to God was what determined whether it was holy or common (see also UNCLEANNESS).
Ideas of moral perfection
Because holiness signified separation from all that was common and everyday, the word naturally developed a wider meaning that included ideas of excellence and perfection. When applied to God this carried with it ideas of moral perfection. God’s holiness meant that he was separate not only from the common everyday world but, above all, from sin (Hab 1:12-13). As a result holiness developed the association with ethical qualities that we are familiar with in English. Because God was holy, his people were to be holy (Lev 11:44-45; Isa 57:15; 1 Peter 1:15-16). God’s holiness meant also that one day he would judge sinners (see GOD; JUDGMENT). The preaching of the Old Testament prophets was very much concerned with this ethical aspect of holiness.
The prophets emphasized that it was useless for people to be ritually holy before God if they were not ethically holy in their daily lives (Isa 58:13-14; Amos 2:7). Likewise in the New Testament the writers emphasize this moral aspect of holiness. The holiness of God is to be reflected in his people in lives of purity, uprightness and moral goodness (Mark 6:20; Eph 1:4; 5:27; 1 Thess 4:7; Titus 1:8; Heb 12:10,14). Holiness, however, is not something people can achieve by themselves. All are defiled by sin (Rom 3:10,23), but Christ, the perfect one, died to take away their sin. God can now accept repentant sinners as cleansed, because of what Christ has done (1 Peter 2:22-24). God declares believers in Jesus Christ holy; that is, he sanctifies them (1 Cor 6:11; 1 Peter 1:2). Having been declared holy, believers must make it true in practice. They must have lives of practical sanctification (Rom 6:8-11,19-22; see SANCTIFICATION).
HOLY SPIRIT
There is only one God, and this God has always existed in a trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Our understanding of the Holy Spirit is therefore tied up with our understanding of the Trinity, and that in turn is tied up with the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Yet, though the revelation reaches its climax in Christ, its origins are in the Old Testament.
The Old Testament period
When people of Old Testament times saw some remarkable demonstration of the power of God, they called that power by the Hebrew word ruach. This word was used in everyday speech without any particular reference to God and could have the meaning of wind (1 Kings 18:45), breath (Gen 7:15,22) or spirit (in the sense of a person’s life or feelings) (Gen 41:8; 45:27). In relation to God, ruach could apply to the wind that God used to direct the course of nature (Gen 8:1; Exod 10:19), to the breath of God’s ‘nostrils’ or ‘mouth’, by which he did mighty deeds (Ps 18:15; 33:6), or to his spirit, through which he had power, actions and feelings as a living being (Gen 1:2; 6:3). The ruach of God indicated to the Hebrews something that was powerful and irresistible. It was not only full of life itself but was also life-giving (Judg 6:34; 2 Kings 2:16; Job 33:4; Ps 104:30; Ezek 37:14). On certain occasions this Spirit of God, or power of God, came upon selected people for specific purposes.
It may have resulted in victorious leadership (Judg 3:10; 6:34; Zech 4:6), superhuman strength (Judg 14:6,19; 15:14; 16:20) or artistic ability and knowhow (Exod 31:3-5). Frequently it produced unusual behaviour (Num 11:25-29; 1 Sam 10:6,10-11; 19:23-24). Always it was on the side of right and opposed to wrong (Ps 51:10-12; Isa 32:15-16; 63:10; Micah 3:8). Prophets who received God’s messages and passed them on to his people did so through the activity of God’s Spirit upon them (2 Sam 23:2; 2 Chron 24:20; Neh 9:30; Isa 61:1; Zech 7:12; see PROPHECY, PROPHET). God promised that a day was coming when not merely selected people, but all God’s people, regardless of status, sex or age, would have God’s Spirit poured out upon them (Joel 2:28-29; cf. Num 11:29; Ezek 36:27). And the one upon whom God’s Spirit would rest in a special way was the Messiah (Isa 11:1-5; see MESSIAH). In spite of all this, it is probably still true to say that when the Old Testament people spoke of the Spirit of God, they were thinking more of the living and active power of God than of a person within a trinity. They probably had no more understanding of the Spirit of God as a person within a triune Godhead than they had of the Son of God as a person within a triune Godhead. These Old Testament believers, however, did not regard the Spirit as simply an impersonal force. They identified the Spirit with a personal God, yet at the same time they made some distinction between God the Almighty and his Spirit (Gen 1:1-2; 1 Sam 16:13; Ezek 37:26). It was all a preparation for the fuller revelation of the Trinity that came through the life and work of Jesus Christ.
The coming of Jesus
With the coming of Jesus came a much clearer revelation concerning the Spirit of God. People may not always have realized it, but every work ever done in people’s hearts, whether in turning them initially to God or in creating new character within them, was the work of God’s unseen Spirit. In more spectacular demonstrations of God’s working, the Spirit of God had come upon selected people for certain tasks, but Jesus had the Spirit without limit. He lived his life and carried out his work through the unlimited power of God’s Spirit working through him unceasingly (Isa 11:1-5; 42:1-4; Matt 1:18; 3:16- 17; 12:28; Luke 4:1,14,18; John 3:34-35; Acts 10:38). Through Jesus people now began to have a new understanding of the Spirit. As Jesus’ baptism showed, God the Father was in heaven, God the Son was on earth, and God the Spirit had come from the Father to rest upon the Son (Matt 3:16-17).
Through Jesus it was shown that the Spirit was more than merely the power of God. Certainly, the Spirit demonstrated the power of God, but people now began to see that the Spirit was a person – someone distinct from Father and Son, yet equal with them and inseparably united with them (Matt 28:19; John 14:15-17; 16:13-15; Acts 5:30-32; 1 Cor 12:4-6; see TRINITY). Unlike the Son, the Spirit did not become flesh, but he was still a person, having knowledge, desires and feelings (Acts 16:6; Rom 8:27; 15:30; 1 Cor 2:11,13; Eph 4:30). Nor was the Spirit merely a ‘part’ of God. He was God himself (Acts 5:3-4; 1 Cor 3:16; 6:19-20). The Spirit always had been fully God and fully personal, even in Old Testament times. The difference between Old and New Testament times was not that there was some change or development in the Holy Spirit (for since he is God, he is eternal and unchanging; Heb 9:14). There may have been a change in the way the Spirit worked, and there was a development in how people understood the Spirit, but the Spirit himself did not change. With the coming of Jesus and the events that followed in the early church, people now had a better understanding of what God had been doing during the pre-Christian era. They now saw more in Old Testament references to the Spirit of God than the Old Testament believers themselves understood (cf. Joel 2:28-29 with Acts 2:16-18; cf. Zech 7:12 with Acts 7:51; 28:25; 1 Peter 1:11). Once God had come into the world in the person of Jesus, Jesus became the means by which God gave his Spirit to others (John 1:33; 20:22). Jesus became the one mediator between God and the human race. No one could come to the Father except through Jesus, and no one could receive God’s Spirit except through Jesus (John 14:6,16-17,26; 15:26; Acts 2:33).
Jesus’ promise to his disciples
During his earthly life Jesus accepted the limitations of time and distance that apply to people in general. Consequently, the work that the Holy Spirit was doing in the world through him was limited to those times and places where Jesus worked. The Spirit was, so to speak, tied to Jesus. Jesus, however, would not remain in the world indefinitely. After he had completed the work his Father had given him to do (a work that could be completed only through his death and resurrection), he would return to his Father, leaving his followers to carry on his work upon earth. To enable them to do this work satisfactorily, the Father would give them the same Spirit as had worked through Jesus (John 14:16-18; 15:26; 16:13-15). This was why Jesus told his disciples that once he had returned triumphantly to his Father, they would do greater works than he had done. The power of the Spirit had previously been limited to the few years of one man’s ministry in one place; but now that power would be poured out on all Jesus’ disciples, and they would carry on his work in all countries, till the end of the age (John 14:12,16). In view of this, it was to the disciples’ advantage that Jesus leave them and return to his Father; for then they too would be indwelt by God’s Holy Spirit (John 14:17; 16:7).
The Holy Spirit is the Spirit of Christ
Although the Holy Spirit is a separate person from the Son, he is inseparably united with the Son, as the Son is with the Father (John 5:43; 14:26). The Holy Spirit is the Spirit of Jesus Christ. He bears the stamp of Jesus’ character, as Jesus bore the stamp of his Father’s character (Acts 16:6-7; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19; 1 Peter 1:11; cf. Heb 1:3). Through the Holy Spirit, Jesus continues to abide with his disciples, even though physically he is no longer in the world (John 14:18; Gal 2:20; Col 1:27). The Spirit is called the Counsellor or Helper, for he gives Jesus’ followers the same counsel or help as Jesus gave them when he was physically with them. Through the Holy Spirit, the presence of Jesus, previously limited to first century Palestine, becomes timeless and worldwide (John 14:16,18,26; 15:26; 16:7). It is impossible, therefore, to have the Spirit without having Christ. Equally it is impossible to have a relationship with God through the Spirit but not through Christ (Acts 2:38; Rom 8:9-11). The Spirit does not exalt himself above Christ, for the Spirit’s task is to direct people to Christ (John 15:26; 1 Cor 12:3). There is no competition between the Spirit and Christ, for the Spirit is the Spirit of Christ. Life ‘in Christ’ is life ‘in the Spirit’ and vice versa (Rom 8:1,9; 2 Cor 3:14-18). Just as Jesus received his authority from the Father, glorified the Father and taught people about the Father, so the Spirit receives his authority from Christ, glorifies Christ and teaches people about Christ (cf. John 8:28 with John 16:13; cf. John 17:4 with John 16:14; cf. John 17:8 with John 14:26, 16:15).
The Spirit and the early church
Because Jesus was to be the channel through whom God would give the Holy Spirit to believers in general, Jesus had to complete the work given him by his Father before believers could receive the Spirit. Moreover, the Father wanted to show his satisfaction with Christ’s work by raising him from the dead and giving him glory. Only after such a triumphant conclusion to Christ’s earthly ministry would the Father give the Spirit to others (John 7:39; 1 Peter 1:21). Jesus therefore told his disciples to wait in Jerusalem after his ascension and they would receive the Holy Spirit as he had promised (Acts 1:4-5). The fulfilment of this promise came on the Day of Pentecost. Just as there were unusual happenings when God poured out the Spirit on Jesus, so there were when he poured out the Spirit on Jesus’ disciples (Acts 2:1-4,33; cf. Matt 3:16-17; John 1:33; for details see BAPTISM WITH THE SPIRIT). The new age had dawned. God had promised to pour out his Spirit on all believers, regardless of status, sex or age, and that promise was now fulfilled (Joel 2:28-29; Acts 2:16- 18,33,39). Having received the Holy Spirit, the disciples then carried on the work of Jesus. Jesus had begun that work during the time of his earthly ministry (Acts 1:1-2), and he continued to do the work through his followers (Acts 3:6; 4:10,27-30; 5:12; cf. Luke 4:18).
Jesus was working through his disciples by the power of the Holy Spirit whom he had given them. Through that Spirit the disciples were bearing witness to Jesus, whose life, death and resurrection had changed the course of history. Jesus had made forgiveness available to the repentant, but judgment certain for the unrepentant. As the disciples made known this message, they presented their hearers with the alternatives of forgiveness and judgment (John 16:7-11; 20:22-23; Acts 1:8; 5:32). All this may be summarized by saying that the Holy Spirit is the one who equips God’s people for the task of spreading the gospel of Jesus, making disciples of Jesus and establishing the church of Jesus (Acts 1:8; 9:31; 13:2; 20:28). He gives different abilities to different people to enable the church to function harmoniously and fruitfully. These abilities are called gifts of the Spirit (1 Cor 12:4-7; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT). Examples from the early church show that the Holy Spirit works in both spectacular and unspectacular ways. He gives Christians boldness in the face of opposition (Acts 4:8; 6:10; 13:9-10), but also the quiet ability to organize church affairs smoothly (Acts 6:3). He guides Christians through inner promptings and visions (Acts 8:29,39; 10:19; 11:28), but also through reasoned discussion (Acts 15:28). He directs Christian activity by opening new opportunities (Acts 13:4), but also through closing others (Acts 16:6-7). (See also CHURCH; PROPHECY; TONGUES.)
Salvation through the Spirit
By nature all people are dead in sin and under God’s judgment, with no way of saving themselves. Only by the work of the Holy Spirit can they be cleansed from sin and given spiritual life (John 3:5; 6:63; 16:7-11; 1 Cor 6:11; Eph 2:1-4; Titus 3:3-6; see REGENERATION). (Concerning the sin against the Holy Spirit see BLASPHEMY.) The Holy Spirit, having given believers new life, remains with them in an unbroken union. The Spirit dwells within them permanently (Rom 8:9-11; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Tim 1:14; 1 John 3:24; 4:13). Christians, then, may be described as those who are ‘in the Spirit’ (Rom 8:9), who ‘have the Spirit’ (Rom 8:9), who are ‘led by the Spirit’ (Rom 8:14) and who ‘live by the Spirit’ (Gal 5:25). The Spirit is God’s seal, God’s mark of ownership, upon them. He gives them the inner assurance that God has made them his sons, and he guarantees to them that they will inherit his eternal blessings (Rom 8:15-17; 2 Cor 1:22; Gal 4:6; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 10:15-17).
Christian life and conduct
There is a constant conflict in the lives of believers, because the old sinful nature (the flesh) fights against the Spirit of God who has now come and dwelt in them (Rom 8:5-7; Gal 5:17; Eph 4:29-32). They triumph over the sinful desires of the flesh not by putting themselves under a set of laws, but by allowing God’s Spirit to direct their lives (Gal 3:3; 5:16-25). Because of their union with Christ, believers have died to the law. The Spirit has given them life and freedom – not a freedom to do as they like, but a freedom from the bondage that the law brings (Rom 7:6; Gal 5:1). Through the Spirit they now have the freedom, and the power, to develop the righteousness that the law aimed at but could never produce (Rom 8:1-4; 2 Cor 3:6,17; Gal 5:5; see FLESH; FREEDOM; LAW). This change in the behaviour of believers does not happen automatically as a result of the Spirit’s dwelling within them. It requires self-discipline and effort (Rom 12:9-13; 1 Cor 9:27; Gal 6:7-10; Eph 6:11-18; 2 Tim 2:1-6; see SELF-DISCIPLINE). But if the Spirit of Christ has control in their lives and is directing their self-discipline and effort, the result will be a quality of character that is like that of Christ himself (Rom 14:17; 2 Cor 3:18; Gal 5:22-23; see LOVE). Such Christlike character is what the Bible calls the fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:22). The production of spiritual fruit, not the exercise of spiritual gift, is the evidence of the Spirit’s working in people’s lives. Even those who are unspiritual can exercise abilities given them by the Spirit, but they cannot produce the character that only the Spirit of God can create (cf. 1 Cor 1:7; 3:1-4; 12:1-3).
A constant helper
Christians should not think that the Spirit-controlled life will be without disappointment, hardship or sorrow. If Jesus suffered, his followers can expect to suffer also (Matt 10:24-25; 2 Tim 3:12), but the Spirit of Jesus within them will help them maintain joy and peace through their sufferings (John 14:18,26; 16:33; Acts 13:52; 20:23; 1 Thess 1:5-6; 1 Peter 4:13-16; see JOY; PEACE). When believers allow God’s Spirit within them to have full control in their lives, they are said to be filled with the Spirit. This filling of the Spirit is not a once-for-all event, but the constant spiritual state of all who live in a right relationship with God and with others (Acts 6:3,5; 11:24; Eph 4:16; 5:18-21). A person full of the Spirit is, in other words, a spiritual person (as someone full of wisdom is a wise person, or someone full of joy a joyful person; Acts 6:3,5,8; 9:36; 11:24; Rom 15:13-14). Yet this Spiritfilled person may receive additional ‘fillings’ in certain circumstances. That is, the person who truly lives by the Spirit can be assured of the Spirit’s added help when special needs arise (cf. Acts 6:5 with 7:55; cf. Acts 9:17 with 13:9-11). Often the Spirit gives such special help to enable believers to have boldness when facing opposition because of their allegiance to Jesus Christ (Acts 2:4; 4:8-12,31; 7:55; 13:50-52). Just as believers who allow God to control their lives are said to be filled with the Spirit, so those who allow the old sinful nature to control their lives are said to grieve the Spirit (Eph 4:29-32; cf. Acts 5:9; 1 Thess 5:15-19). Obedience and faith are as necessary for enjoying the Spirit’s power as they are for receiving the Spirit in the first place (Acts 5:32; Gal 3:2).
Worship, prayer and the Word
The Holy Spirit creates unity and fellowship among Christians (1 Cor 12:12-13; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2; see FELLOWSHIP). When Christians join together in worship, the Holy Spirit is the one who unites them in a common purpose and directs their worship (Acts 13:2; 1 Cor 12:7-8). In fact, they can worship God acceptably only as the Spirit works in their thoughts and words (John 4:24; Phil 3:3; see WORSHIP). True prayer, like true worship, is an activity that believers can carry out only through the activity of the Holy Spirit in them (Eph 6:18; Jude 20). Jesus Christ is their mediator in heaven (Rom 8:34; Heb 7:25), and the Spirit of Jesus Christ is within them on earth (Rom 8:9). As believers pray, the Spirit helps them and brings their real desires before God. This is particularly so when they themselves cannot find the right words to express those desires (Rom 8:26-27; Eph 2:18; see PRAYER). Not only the believer’s word to God, but also God’s word to the believer involves the activity of the Spirit. Just as a person’s own spirit, and no one else’s, knows what is going on inside that person, so the Spirit of God, and no one else, knows what is going on within God. Therefore, only those who have the Spirit of God can properly understand the Word of God or teach it to others (1 Cor 2:10-13). Christian teachers or preachers, while they are careful to make sure that the hearers understand their message, must nevertheless rely upon the working of God’s Spirit for that message to be effectual (Acts 4:8; 1 Cor 2:3-5; see PREACHING).
God’s Spirit and God’s Word are inseparable, because each works through the other. The Old Testament Scriptures were written by the inspiration of God’s Spirit upon the writers (2 Tim 3:16; 2 Peter 1:20-21; see INSPIRATION). This same Spirit worked in his fulness through Jesus, and enlightened Jesus’ followers by applying and developing his teachings (John 14:26; 16:12-15; 1 Peter 1:12). Through the work of the Holy Spirit in those men, the New Testament Scriptures came into being. As people read those Scriptures, the Spirit continues to bear witness to Jesus (John 15:26).
HOPE
Hope is a characteristic of genuine faith in God. Such hope is different from the hope that people in general might speak of. It is not a mere wish for something, but a strong confidence that is placed in God. It is the assured belief that God will do what he has promised (Ps 42:5; 71:5; Rom 4:18; Heb 11:1). Hope, according to its Christian meaning, is inseparable from faith (Rom 5:1-5; Gal 5:5; Heb 6:11-12; 1 Peter 1:21). Those without God have no faith and therefore have no hope (Eph 2:12; 1 Thess 4:13; cf. Col 1:23). The great hope for Christians is the return of Jesus Christ, when they will experience the fulness of their salvation and enter with Christ into the glory of the new age (1 Cor 15:19-23; Eph 1:18; Col 1:27; 1 Thess 5:8; 1 Peter 1:13).
For Christians, then, to have the hope of Christ’s return means to look forward to it eagerly; and the basis for such hope is Christ’s atoning death and glorious resurrection. Christ’s entrance into glory guarantees the entrance of believers into glory (Col 1:5; Heb 6:19; 1 Peter 1:18-21). By its very nature, hope means that the thing hoped for has not yet arrived. Christ has not yet returned. Believers must therefore have patience as they wait for the day of their final salvation (Rom 8:23-25; Heb 11:1,39-40). This patience contains no element of doubt, for Christian hope is the anticipation of something that is certain. God confirms the hope of salvation by giving believers the Holy Spirit. They have a living guarantee within them until the day their hope is fulfilled.
The Spirit is God’s mark of permanent ownership upon them (2 Cor 1:22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; see ASSURANCE). Until Christ returns, the world will continue to be a place of imperfection and suffering. Christians must therefore persevere and be patient through all the difficulties they meet (Rom 5:3-5; 12:12). Their hope in Christ means that their endurance will be characterized not by grudging tolerance, but by positive enjoyment of all that life offers. Hope gives their lives purpose and stability (Rom 15:13; Col 3:1-4; 1 Thess 1:3; 2 Thess 2:16-17; Titus 2:11-14; see JOY; PATIENCE). At the same time they will work hard at keeping themselves free from sin; for their day of salvation is also their day of reckoning (1 John 3:2-3; cf. Matt 24:45-46; 2 Cor 5:10).
HOREB
Mount Horeb is another name for Mount Sinai. (For details see SINAI.)
HORITES
The Horites were the original inhabitants of the region around Mt Seir, south of the Dead Sea. When Esau and his descendants moved into the region, they overpowered the Horites and took possession of the land for themselves. It became part of the land of Edom, and the remaining Horites were absorbed into the Edomites (Gen 14:6; 36:20-21; Deut 2:12,22; see EDOM).
HORN
Since wild animals used their horns to defend themselves or attack their enemies, Israelites often spoke of the horn as a symbol of power (Deut 33:17; 1 Kings 22:11; Ps 18:2; 22:21; 75:5,10; 92:10; Zech 1:21; Luke 1:69; Rev 5:6). Sometimes horns were symbolic of powerful rulers (Dan 7:7,24; 8:20; Rev 17:3,12). People used certain kinds of horns as musical instruments, particularly on ceremonial occasions (2 Sam 6:15). In times of battle, the blowing of horns, like the blowing of trumpets or bugles, was a means of making declarations or sending signals (Josh 6:4,13; Judg 7:18; 1 Cor 14:8).
Other horns were made into containers for the oil used in the ceremonial anointing of kings and priests (1 Sam 16:13; 1 Kings 1:39). Ornamental horns projected from the four corners of the altars of the tabernacle. The priests applied the blood of certain sacrifices to these horns as part of the ritual for the cleansing of sin (Exod 27:2; 29:12; 30:1-2,10). Israelite law did not permit the widespread ancient practice of clinging to the horns of the altar to escape punishment for murder (Exod 21:14; 1 Kings 1:51; 2:29).
HOSANNA
Originally the word ‘Hosanna’ was a combination of parts of two Hebrew words that meant ‘save’ and ‘pray’. When the word was joined to the name of God, Yahweh, the expression became both a prayer and an exclamation of praise: ‘Save us, O Lord’. The Hebrew form of the word occurs only once in the Old Testament, in Psalm 118. The scene is one of triumph, as Israel’s king enters the temple for a public ceremony of praise to God for a recent victory in battle.
His entrance is followed by a shout of ‘Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord’, accompanied by the waving of palm branches, as the people welcome their victorious king (Ps 118:25-27). ‘Hosanna’ later became an expression of praise in expectation of the great Saviour-Messiah. In the New Testament the word is used in a setting similar to that of Psalm 118. When people in Jerusalem welcomed Jesus as their Saviour-Messiah, they shouted praises of ‘Hosanna’ and waved palm branches. By going direct to the temple, Jesus showed that his messiahship was concerned chiefly with spiritual issues, not political. In the temple also he was greeted with shouts of ‘Hosanna’, and again Jesus accepted the praise. He was indeed the promised Messiah (Matt 21:1-17; John 12:12-15; see MESSIAH).
HOSHEA
The closing years of the northern kingdom of Israel were dominated by Assyria. When the Israelite king Pekah tried to oppose Assyria, the result was a disaster for Israel. Hoshea, a sympathizer with Assyria, assassinated Pekah and became king himself (2 Kings 15:29-30). Hoshea survived as Israel’s king only by buying protection from Assyria. When, with Egypt’s help, he rebelled against Assyria by refusing to pay any further money, Assyria attacked Samaria (Israel’s capital) and imprisoned Hoshea. After a three-year siege, Assyria crushed Samaria and took the people into captivity (2 Kings 17:1-6). This was the end of the northern kingdom (722 BC).
HOSPITALITY
Most people in Bible times recognized that they had a responsibility to practise hospitality. The custom was to welcome both friends and strangers and to give them food, water and other provisions to make them comfortable (Gen 18:1-8; 24:32; Exod 2:20; Deut 10:18-19; 23:4; Judg 13:15; 19:16-21; 2 Kings 4:8; Job 31:32; Luke 7:44-45; Acts 9:43; 16:15). A mark of special honour was to wash the guest’s feet or to anoint the head with oil (Ps 23:5; Luke 7:37-38,44-46). Hosts were responsible to protect all those who stayed with them (Gen 19:1-11; Judg 19:22-23). God’s people must be ready always to practise hospitality to those in need, whether close friends or people they have never seen before. And they must do so without expecting anything in return.
Those who fail in this matter are in danger of God’s chastisement (Isa 58:7; Matt 25:31-46; Luke 14:12-14; Rom 12:13; Gal 6:10; Heb 13:2; 1 Peter 4:9). Church leaders in particular should be an example to the rest of the church by their hospitality (1 Tim 3:2; 3 John 5-6). If Christians have not practised generous hospitality to others, they are in no position to call upon the church for financial support when they themselves are in need (1 Tim 5:9-10). Christians have a special duty to give hospitality to travelling preachers and teachers of God’s Word (Rom 16:23; 1 Cor 9:4-5; Titus 3:13-14; Philem 22; 3 John 5-8). They should give no hospitality at all to those who are false teachers (2 John 9-11).
HOSTS
God was, to the Israelites, the Lord of hosts. To them this signified a God of almighty power against whom no enemy could succeed. The armies of Israel were the armies of God, the hosts of Yahweh (1 Sam 17:45; cf. Josh 5:14-15). Yet as Lord of hosts, God is more than just God of the armies of Israel. He is God of the countless multitudes of angelic beings who live in constant readiness to carry out his commands (1 Kings 22:19; Ps 148:2; see ANGELS). As a title indicating a God whose power is unlimited, ‘Lord of hosts’ is a frequently used title of God in the Bible. It occurs almost three hundred times (e.g. Ps 24:10; Isa 1:24; Jer 2:19; Zech 1:17; Mal 1:6,14; James 5:4).
HOUR
Like the word ‘day’, the word ‘hour’ is used in the Bible both specifically and generally. It may refer to a measured length of time or to an occasion or period (Matt 20:9,12; 24:44; 26:40,45; Luke 22:53; John 4:21; 5:28; 7:30; 12:27; for details see DAY; TIME).
HOUSE
Israel’s conquest of Canaan under Joshua led to a new way of life for the Israelite people. One feature of this new way of life was a change in their domestic accommodation. Instead of being a wandering people who lived in tents and other temporary shelters, they were now a settled people who lived in houses (cf. Num 24:5; see TENT). The Israelites built some of these houses themselves, but others they took over from the Canaanites. Often the houses were grouped together in villages or towns, where a surrounding wall protected them against attack. Farmers went out of the town and farmed their fields during the day, and returned to the safety of their homes at night (Judg 9:42-45; 1 Sam 6:18; 1 Chron 27:25).
The Israelite house
An ancient Israelite house was usually rectangular in plan, two storeyed, made of either stones or bricks, and covered on the inside walls with plaster (Lev 14:40-42; cf. Exod 5:7). The house had to be built on a solid foundation, and the whole structure was held together by being built into huge stones at the corners of the building (Isa 28:16; Matt 7:24-27; 21:42; see CORNERSTONE). Outside the house, steps led up to the roof, which was a flat area used as a place to relax, sleep, pray and worship (Jer 32:29; Mark 2:4; 13:15; Acts 10:9). A railing or low wall around the edge of the roof prevented people from accidentally falling off (Deut 22:8). Inside the larger houses was a central courtyard where women did much of the cooking, washing and other household work. Water pots, jars and household utensils were usually kept in this courtyard (Isa 44:16; Jer 25:10; Ezek 24:3-5; Mark 7:4; Luke 22:55). People stored their family food and valuable possessions in the house, along with their farm tools and, at times, food for their animals (Judg 19:21). Windows were usually covered with lattice for security (Song of Songs 2:9). The upper floor of a house may have consisted of one large room or may have been divided into several smaller rooms. This upper floor was used for sleeping, for accommodating guests, or for holding large gatherings (Luke 22:12; Acts 1:12; 20:8). In most houses furniture was simple, consisting only of those articles that were necessary (2 Kings 4:10). The houses of the rich, by contrast, were furnished lavishly (Amos 3:15; 6:4-6).
Making good use of the house
God’s people are expected to use their houses, as they should use all things, for the glory of God (Col 3:17). The house should, above all, be a home, where children and adults can live together in a healthy and enjoyable family life (1 Tim 3:4,12; 5:14; see FAMILY). But Christians must not use their houses solely for their own benefit. Their houses should be places where other Christians can enjoy fellowship (Acts 2:46; 16:15,34; 21:8) and perhaps have regular meetings (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15). They should use their houses to practise hospitality at all times – not just in entertaining friends, but in providing generous help and friendship to the lonely, the poor and the needy (Isa 58:7; Matt 25:35; Heb 13:2; see HOSPITALITY).
HUMANITY, HUMANKIND
This article is concerned with what is referred to today as humankind, and in former times as mankind or man; that is, humanity as a whole, human beings, the human race. Concerning the distinctiveness of men and women within that race see MEN; WOMEN.
Made in God’s image
Basic to any study of the nature of human beings is the fact that God created them in his own image (Gen 1:27; 9:6; James 3:9). They are therefore unique among all God’s earthly creatures. They have a God-given authority over the material world in which they live (Gen 1:26; Ps 8:3-8) and a God-given capacity for fellowship with the unseen, sovereign, eternal God (Acts 17:26-27). Because human beings exist in God’s image, the Bible makes no attempt to divide them into different ‘parts’, such as physical, spiritual, moral, mental, emotional and the like. The human being is not a collection of components, but a unified whole. The whole person exists in God’s image (see IMAGE).
The Bible uses words such as ‘body’, ‘mind’, ‘soul’, etc. not to indicate the number of parts that make up the human being, but to indicate different aspects of human life as it appears in different contexts. For example, we must not think that, because Jesus told people to love God with all their heart and soul and mind and strength, they are made up of four parts (Mark 12:30); or that, because Paul prayed for the Thessalonians to be kept blameless in spirit, soul and body, they are made up of three parts (1 Thess 5:23); or that, because Jesus spoke of the destruction of soul and body, they are made up of two parts (Matt 10:28). Some of these words are used in different ways by different people at different times. Sometimes two words may have virtually the same meaning; other times they may have quite different meanings.
Aspects of human life
Both ‘soul’ and ‘spirit’ have a range of meanings in the Bible. The basic meaning of ‘soul’ (Hebrew: nephesh; Greek: psyche) has to do with a person’s (or animal’s) existence as a living being. It is often translated ‘life’ or ‘person’ (Gen 1:21,24; 2:7; Exod 1:5; Ezek 18:4,27; Matt 16:26; Acts 2:41,43; Phil 2:30; see SOUL). The basic meaning of ‘spirit’ (Hebrew: ruach; Greek: pneuma) has to do with that unseen, life-giving force that comes from God – the ‘breath of life’ that he gives to all persons (and animals), that belongs to him, and that he takes back at death (Gen 7:22; Num 16:22; Eccles 12:7; Heb 12:9; James 2:26; see SPIRIT). With regard to these meanings, we might say that people are nephesh (living beings) because they have ruach (the life-force that comes from God). However, the Bible uses both nephesh and ruach (and their Greek equivalents in the New Testament) to refer to certain aspects of human life where human beings are different from other animals. Human emotions, will-power and understanding may in some cases be linked with the soul (Gen 42:21; Deut 6:5; John 12:27; Acts 4:32), in others with the spirit (Exod 35:21; Ps 77:6; Mark 2:8; 8:12; 1 Cor 14:14-15).
More importantly, the higher and spiritual aspect of human life that other animals do not share may be called the soul (Heb 13:17; 1 Peter 2:11) or the spirit (Rom 8:10; 2 Tim 4:22). The physical and nonphysical aspects of humans may be referred to as body and soul (Matt 10:28) or body and spirit (1 Cor 7:34; 2 Cor 7:1). That aspect that continues in a bodiless existence after death may be referred to as a soul (Acts 2:27; Rev 6:9; 20:4) or a spirit (Heb 12:23; 1 Peter 3:18). Such bodiless existence is only temporary. God’s purpose is not that people should live endlessly merely as souls or spirits. His purpose is that they find their full salvation as whole people in resurrected and glorified bodies (1 Cor 15:35-54; see BODY). Soul and spirit are not the same. Yet it is not easy to distinguish between them (Heb 4:12). We should not think of them as two ‘parts’ which, put together in a certain proportion, make up the inner life (as hydrogen and oxygen, put together in a certain proportion, make up water). It is probably better to think of them as the inner life viewed from different aspects. The Bible most frequently refers to this inner life as the heart. Depending on which aspect of the inner life is emphasized, the heart may refer to the soul (Deut 4:29; Acts 4:32), the spirit (Ps 51:10,17; 1 Cor 2:9,11) or the mind (1 Sam 2:35; Heb 10:16; see HEART; MIND).
Failure and triumph
The story of the Bible is the story of human failure and God’s gracious salvation. God intended people to live in harmony with their Creator, their fellow human beings and their physical environment, and to have peace within themselves. But because of sin, all these relationships are in a state of conflict instead of harmony, tension instead of peace (Gen 3:8-24; see SIN). People have become, so to speak, infected by the disease of sin, and this infection affects every part of their nature. The tendency to do wrong is within the nature people are born with. This ‘diseased’ human nature is commonly called ‘the flesh’ (Ps 51:5; Rom 5:12; 8:7; 13:14; see FLESH). Through their sin, people have placed themselves under God’s judgment. They are guilty before a holy and just God, and can do nothing to escape condemnation (Num 32:23; Rom 3:23; 5:12; Eph 2:3; Heb 10:31). God, however, has provided a way of salvation. God took human form in the person of Jesus Christ, who lived the human life perfectly and finally died to bear sin’s punishment on behalf of his fellow human beings (Rom 8:3; Heb 4:15).
Through Jesus Christ, the human race can regain what it lost through the man Adam. Human beings can enjoy what God intended for them from the beginning – harmony with their Creator, their fellow human beings and their physical environment, along with peace within themselves. The image of God that was spoiled by sin can be restored through Christ (1 Cor 15:22; Eph 4:24; Col 3:10; see IMAGE, sub-heading ‘The perfect man’). The evil consequences of human sin may be summarized under the word ‘death’ (Gen 2:17; Rom 6:23; Eph 2:1). Christ reverses all those evil consequences. The salvation that he has achieved includes even the conquest of physical death (Acts 2:24; Heb 2:14-15; see DEATH; LIFE). Those who trust in Christ for their salvation can look forward to the fulfilment of that salvation when Christ returns and raises the dead (Rom 8:18-25; 1 Cor 15:49-57). Whatever glory God intended for the human race will be experienced by those who are united with Christ. Their whole person will experience this glory, and therefore they must, in their whole person, remain devoted to God and blameless in behaviour till Christ returns (Mark 12:30; 1 Thess 5:23; see RESURRECTION). For those who refuse Christ’s salvation, there is nothing to look forward to but fearful judgment (Heb 9:27; 10:27; see JUDGMENT).
HUMILITY
The words ‘humility’ and ‘humble’, which are from the same basic word, have a variety of meanings. In some cases they are associated with ideas of poverty or affliction (1 Sam 2:8; Ps 37:11,14; Isa 29:19; Phil 4:12; James 1:9), in others with ideas of embarrassment or shame (Isa 53:3,8; Acts 8:33; 2 Cor 9:4; 11:7; 12:21; Phil 3:21; James 1:10). Their most common usage, however, is in relation to attitudes of modesty, selflessness, gentleness, grace, meekness and forbearance. Humility in this sense is one of the virtues most pleasing to God. Its opposite, pride, is one of the evils most hateful to him (Num 12:3; Prov 6:16-17; Dan 5:22-23; Micah 6:8; James 4:6; 1 Peter 5:5; see PRIDE). Jesus Christ is the great example of humility. In an act of total self-denial, the eternal Son of God humbled himself to the extent of taking human form and in the end dying to save sinners (Phil 2:5-11). He was never boastful and never acted in a way that advanced his own interests. Always he submitted to his Father’s will, so that he not only served God but also served those among whom he lived (Matt 12:19- 20; 20:28; John 5:30-32). Just as Jesus humbled himself in living and dying for sinners, so sinners must humble themselves in repenting of their sins if they are to receive God’s forgiveness.
God gives sinners no cause to boast in anything they might achieve. They can do nothing but acknowledge how helpless they are before God and humbly accept God’s mercy (2 Chron 7:14; 12:6-7; 34:27; Luke 18:9-14; Rom 3:27; 10:3). Humility characterized Christ’s kingship (Matt 21:5), and only through humility can anyone enter his kingdom (Matt 18:1-4). Christians have a responsibility to develop humility in their lives. It is part of the life to which God has called them (Eph 4:1-2; Col 3:12), it is a characteristic of life in God’s kingdom (Matt 20:20-27) and it is the product of the Spirit’s work in the life of the individual (Gal 5:23). If they are to learn humility, they must be willing to take the lowest place and serve others (Luke 22:24-27; John 13:3-17). Such humility will help produce genuine fellowship in the church. It will prevent Christians from competing with each other to see who is the greatest among them (Mark 9:33-37; Rom 12:16; 2 Cor 10:12; Gal 6:3; Eph 4:2; Phil 2:3). Those who look for status and praise may gain what they seek, but their reward will be short-lived (Matt 6:1-5,16). God exalts those who humble themselves, but humbles those who exalt themselves (Prov 3:34; 15:33; 18:12; Isa 2:11; 5:15; Matt 23:12; Luke 1:48-53: James 4:10; 1 Peter 5:6).
HUSBAND
God created man and woman as equal in status and worth, as joint bearers of the image of God (Gen 1:27). God also desired that man and woman live together in harmony, and with this in view he made them as the counterparts of each other. As husband and wife they were partners in a marriage relation where each was equipped to complement the other. Within this equality of status there was a difference of functions (Gen 2:21-25).
The need for regulations
Since the husband was given the role of originator of offspring, he bore the ultimate responsibility for the family (1 Cor 11:3,8-9; see also FAMILY; WIFE). But when sin entered the world, the husband was tempted to misuse his position and treat his wife as if she were his slave rather than his equal (Gen 3:16). On account of this, the law of Moses introduced regulations that guaranteed the rights of the wife and protected her from exploitation by her husband. If a husband accused his wife of unfaithfulness, his accusation was not accepted without careful examination (Num 5:11-31). If an accusation was found to be false, the husband was punished (Deut 22:13-19). Husbands were in the habit of divorcing their wives for the most insignificant reasons, until Moses introduced a law to protect the wives (Deut 24:1-4; see DIVORCE). If a man took one of his female slaves and made her a wife or concubine, he had to give her the full rights of a wife. He could not make her a slave again if he later grew tired of her (Exod 21:7-11; see CONCUBINE). When a man wished to marry a woman taken captive in war, he had to give her special consideration and care because of the new way of life she was being introduced to. If later she did not please him, he could not make her a slave again, but had to allow her to go free (Deut 21:10-14).
The Christian way
Teaching given to Christians in the New Testament has helped to restore the rights of the wife so that she might enjoy the equality with her husband that God intended from the beginning (Gal 3:28; 1 Peter 3:7). Both husband and wife have rights, but they also have obligations to each other. One cannot do without the other (1 Cor 7:3-4; 11:11-12; cf. Acts 18:2-3,26). In their different roles, the wife must accept the husband’s ultimate headship, and the husband must sacrifice himself for the sake of the wife. The husband has no authority to force his wife to follow some course of action merely because it pleases him. On the contrary he must treat her with special consideration and give her respect (Eph 5:23-25; Col 3:19; 1 Peter 3:7). The self-sacrificing love that the husband should exercise towards the wife is the same as that which Christ has exercised towards the church (Eph 5:25-31; see also MARRIAGE).
HYMN
See PRAISE; SINGING.
HYPOCRISY
Jesus repeatedly condemned the Jewish religious leaders of his time as hypocrites, because though they were outwardly religious, inwardly they were ungodly (Matt 22:18; 23:25; Mark 7:6-8; 12:15). They had no knowledge of God and his teaching, and could not see their own sin. They thought that their show of religion would impress people and please God, but it brought instead condemnation from Jesus (Matt 6:2-5; 23:13-36; Luke 12:56). While pretending to be sincere, they had evil motives (Luke 20:19-20; cf. 1 Tim 4:2). Their hypocrisy was, in fact, malice (cf. Mark 12:15 with Matt 22:18; see MALICE). God’s people must constantly beware of the dangers of hypocrisy. It shows itself in many ways, as, for example, when people accuse others of what they are guilty of themselves (Matt 7:5; Luke 13:15; Rom 2:1-3,19-24). It shows itself also when people flatter others, or when they change their stated opinions solely to please others (Ps 12:3-4; Gal 2:13). All insincerity, whether in speech or actions, is hypocrisy (1 Peter 2:1). Christians can learn to overcome it through practising genuine love and developing a sensitive conscience (Rom 12:9; 14:13; 1 Tim 1:5).
HYSSOP
It seems that hyssop was some sort of cereal plant that grew in Palestine. When several stalks were tied together it made a good brush, and as such was used to apply blood in some of the Jewish rituals (Exod 12:22; Lev 14:4,6,49-52; Num 19:2-6; Ps 51:7; Heb 9:19). Its strong stalk enabled it to be used to pass a sponge of vinegar up to Jesus as he hung on the cross (John 19:29).