MACEDONIA
Macedonia was the northern part of the land known today as Greece, and the centre of power during the time of the Greek Empire. It later became an important province of the Roman Empire. Ships from the port of Troas in Asia Minor connected with the port of Neapolis in Macedonia, from where the main highway led through the Macedonian town of Philippi, Amphipolis, Apollonia and Thessalonica towards Rome (Acts 16:11-12; 17:1). Another route went south from Thessalonica through Berea to Athens (Acts 17:10-15). The administrative centre of the province was Thessalonica. Paul passed through Macedonia on his second missionary journey and established churches in a number of towns (Acts 16:9-40; 17:1-14; see BEREA; THESSALONICA; PHILIPPI). He revisited the area during his third missionary journey (Acts 19:21; 20:1-6; 1 Cor 16:5; 2 Cor 2:13; 7:5). At this time Paul was organizing a collection of money for the poor Christians in Jerusalem, and the Macedonian churches cooperated generously (Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 8:1-4; 9:1-4). After being released from his first imprisonment in Rome, Paul visited Macedonia again (1 Tim 1:3).
MAGIC
People have from earliest times had the urge to use supernatural (occult) forces to help them know the future. The foretelling of events in this way is sometimes called divination (Acts 16:16-18). Magic, witchcraft and sorcery go beyond divination in that they seek to use occult powers not merely to foretell future events but also to influence those events. Such magic often has an evil intent, being directed at enemies by means of curses, spells and ritualistic actions. Sometimes it may have a partly good intent in trying to reverse evil spells and curses (Num 24:1,10; 1 Sam 6:2; 2 Kings 17:17; 21:6; Dan 2:2; Rev 9:21).
But divination and sorcery derive their power from the demons of the spirit world, and for this reason the Bible condemns them (Lev 19:26,31; 20:6,27; Deut 18:10-11; 2 Kings 21:6; 23:24; Gal 5:19-20; Rev 9:21; 21:8; 22:15). Sorcerers often used their powers in deliberate opposition to God (Acts 13:8; 19:19; 2 Tim 3:8).
Among the methods of divination and sorcery mentioned in the Bible are throwing arrows into the air and observing the pattern formed when they fall (Ezek 21:21), consulting idolatrous figures or images (Ezek 21:21), looking into the liver of a sacrificed animal (Ezek 21:21), consulting the spirits of the dead (1 Sam 28:8-9), studying the movements of the stars (Isa 47:13), gazing into a bowl or large cup of water (Gen 44:5,15) and using wristbands and veils in weird rituals to cast deadly spells over people (Ezek 13:17-19). Magicians were among the chief advisers to kings in many ancient countries (Exod 7:11; Dan 2:2). Divination, witchcraft and all these associated practices are contrary to the ways of God, not only because they depend on evil spiritual powers for their operation, but also because they are a denial of faith. True believers walk humbly with their God, accepting that, no matter what the circumstances, God is still in control of their affairs. Having been saved by faith, they now live by faith (Gal 2:20; Eph 4:17- 24; Col 1:11-13; Heb 11:6). Jesus Christ has triumphed over all the unseen powers of evil, and through him believers too can triumph (Eph 1:19-21; 2:6; Col 2:8-10; 3:1-3). They believe in the power of the living Christ, but they do not treat that power as if it is magical (Acts 19:13-16).
MALICE
One destructive fruit of sinful human nature is malice – the desire to harm someone or the feeling of pleasure at someone’s misfortune (Ps 41:5; Ezek 25:6; Titus 3:3; 1 Peter 2:1). Malice is often the cause of false accusations (Exod 23:1; Ps 35:11; Matt 22:18; see HATRED). Unless people deal with their malice, it will bring God’s punishment upon them (Rom 1:29; 2:2). It is an attitude that should have no place among God’s people (1 Cor 5:8; Eph 4:31; Col 3:8; 1 Peter 2:1). The way to overcome malice is through the proper exercise of Christian love (1 Cor 13:6; see LOVE).
MAMRE
Mamre was a locality in Hebron named after the man who owned it. Its prominent oak trees, which possibly were considered sacred, were a well known landmark (Gen 13:18; 14:13,24; 18:1; 23:19). (For details see HEBRON.)
MAN, MANKIND
See HUMANITY, HUMANKIND
MANASSEH, TRIBE OF
Among the tribes of Israel there were two, Ephraim and Manasseh, that took their names not from Jacob’s sons but from his grandsons. Ephraim and Manasseh were the sons of Joseph. When Jacob determined to give the firstborn’s blessing to Joseph instead of to Reuben (for Reuben had disqualified himself by raping one of his father’s concubines; Gen 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chron 5:1-2), he raised Joseph’s two sons to the same status as Joseph’s brothers (Gen 48:5-6). As a result Joseph, through his two sons, received two tribes, but each of his brothers received only one. Though Manasseh was born before Ephraim, Ephraim’s tribe was senior to Manasseh’s (Gen 48:12-20). Manasseh differed from all other tribes in Israel in that it was divided into two portions. Half the tribe lived in Canaan (the area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea) and the other half lived in the area east of Jordan (Josh 22:7). In all there were nine and a half tribes in Canaan and two and a half east of Jordan.
The two tribes that settled east of Jordan with half of Manasseh were Reuben and Gad (Num 32:1- 5,33; Josh 13:8-33). (For an outline of the settlement and history of the eastern tribes see REUBEN.) The land occupied by the eastern half of Manasseh was the most northern of these three tribal areas. Its northern part was commonly known as Bashan, and included the towns Golan and Edrei (Josh 13:29-31; 22:7; see BASHAN). Its southern part was sometimes known as Gilead, a name commonly applied to the neighbouring tribe Gad, and even to the entire region east of Jordan. Ramoth-gilead was an important frontier town where Gilead bordered Gentile territory to the east (1 Kings 22:3; see GILEAD; RAMOTH-GILEAD). West of Jordan the other half of Manasseh occupied good land to the north of the tribe of Ephraim (Josh 17:1-12). Although Ephraim and Manasseh between them received one of the largest and best portions of Canaan, they still complained that they had not enough land. Joshua gave them no more, but told them to make better use of the land they already had. They could do this by clearing the forest and driving out the remaining Canaanites (Josh 17:14-18). Within the northern part of this territory was part of the Plain of Esdraelon, site of many of Israel’s battles (see PALESTINE). (For the important towns of West Manasseh see BETHSHAN; JEZREEL; MEGIDDO.)
MANNA
Manna was a kind of food that God first gave to the Israelites soon after they left Egypt. It remained their daily food for the next forty years (Exod 16:4; Num 11:6; Ps 78:23-24). It was not, however, their only food (Exod 18:12; Lev 7:14-15; 11:2-3,9; Num 11:31-34). God’s provision of the manna ceased once the people arrived in Canaan (Josh 5:12). The people of Israel gave the food the name ‘manna’ (meaning ‘What is it?’) because they did not know what else to call it (Exod 16:15,31). We today do not know exactly what the manna was or how it was made. Possibly it was a substance prepared by insects that sucked the gum from trees. It formed during the night and was ready to be collected in the morning. It was fine, flaky, tasted like wafers mixed with honey, and could be cooked in various ways (Exod 16:14,23,31; Num 11:7-9). God supplied the manna every morning, and the people had to eat it the same day. The only exceptions concerned the Sabbath rest day. There was no manna on Saturday mornings, but God gave two days’ supply each Friday, half of which the people kept for use on Saturday. Because the manna spoiled quickly, the people preserved the supply for Saturday by baking or boiling it beforehand. Moses controlled the collection and distribution of the manna so that no one had too much or too little (Exod 16:4-5,15-18,23). The command that prohibited keeping the manna overnight tested the people’s obedience.
The promise that ensured complete Sabbath rest through the double supply each Friday tested their faith. But in both matters they failed (Exod 16:19-30). In accordance with God’s instructions, Moses put part of the manna in a jar, to keep as a memorial of how God fed his people in the wilderness. This jar was later placed in the ark of the covenant together with Aaron’s rod and the stone tablets inscribed with the law (Exod 16:31-35; Heb 9:4). God also used the manna to teach the Israelites that their lives depended not merely on the food they ate, but on their spiritual relationship with God (Deut 8:3; cf. Matt 4:4). Jesus compared the gift of manna to satisfy physical hunger with the gift of himself to satisfy spiritual hunger. He did not need to make food fall from heaven, for he himself was the true bread from heaven (John 6:31-35). He gave himself as a sacrifice for sin, so that those who trust in him may have eternal life (John 6:48-51; cf. Rev 2:17).
MANUSCRIPTS
It appears that the books of the Bible were written originally on scrolls of papyrus, a material made from dried and flattened strips of papyrus reed (see WRITING). Papyrus did not last well, and the original writings all perished long ago. But from the beginning people had made copies of the original writings, and others continued to make copies down through the centuries. These copies are known as manuscripts (abbreviated MS in the singular, MSS in the plural). Although the original writings were written by ordinary people in ordinary human language, they were at the same time written under the special direction of the Spirit of God. They expressed the truth as God wanted it expressed (see INSPIRATION). The copies that have survived, however, have suffered some damage from people who have copied or used them. Because methods of mechanical printing were unknown in ancient times, people who made copies of the Scriptures had to write them out by hand. Writing skills varied and copyists at times made errors. Some of the common errors were to misread the master copy, misspell words, or misplace, omit, or repeat words or lines. There were also cases where copyists deliberately changed the wording to make a sentence mean what they thought it should mean. Yet, in spite of human failings, God has preserved his Word. There are so many good manuscripts in existence that people with the necessary skills are able to determine the original wording fairly accurately.
Old Testament manuscripts
The language of the Old Testament, Hebrew, reads from right to left and was written originally with consonants only. The absence of vowels caused no problem to the readers, as they could mentally put in the vowels as they read. But with the spread of the Aramaic language and then Greek during the latter centuries BC (see ARAM; GREECE), Hebrew had become less widely known in Palestine in New Testament times. After the destruction of the Jewish state in AD 70, the use of Hebrew declined even further. This decline continued, till Hebrew ceased to be a commonly spoken language. Over an extended period from the sixth to the eleventh centuries AD, Hebrew scholars called Massoretes introduced a system of vowel signs, or ‘points’, to ensure that the meaning of the original writing was not lost. These vowel points were dots and other symbols placed below or above the consonants to show what the word was and how it should be pronounced. The version of the Old Testament that the Massoretes established is commonly called the Massoretic Text (MT). Until the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1948, the oldest known manuscripts of the Old Testament were from the ninth to the eleventh centuries AD. The reason why no earlier manuscripts survived was that when manuscripts became too old or worn to use, the Hebrew scholars buried them, rather than let them fall into dishonourable use. In making fresh manuscripts, the Hebrew copyists were almost fanatical at preserving every letter exactly as it was in the former manuscripts. As a result they made few errors. Versions and translations from the ancient past confirm the general reliability of the Hebrew manuscripts. Among the most important of these are the Dead Sea Scrolls, a collection of Old Testament and other writings belonging to a Jewish community that lived in the region of the Dead Sea about 130 BC to AD 70. There is added confirmation of this reliability in the copies of early translations that were based on Old Testament manuscripts older than any available today. These include translations into Greek in the second century BC, into Syriac in the first century AD, and into Latin in the fifth century AD. Further confirmation comes from the Samaritan version of the Pentateuch and from quotations from the Old Testament found in Jewish writings of the first five centuries AD. (See also SEPTUAGINT.)
New Testament manuscripts
In New Testament times Greek was the language commonly spoken throughout the lands of the Bible story. The books of the New Testament were written in Greek – not classical Greek, but the everyday language spoken by ordinary people. From the beginning, people made copies of letters that Paul and others had written, as well as copies of the Gospel records, and sent them to churches far and near. All this took time, and many years passed before all the writings were gathered together to form the complete New Testament as we know it today (see CANON). Greek manuscripts were of two kinds, those written entirely in uncial (or capital) letters, and those written in minuscule (or lower case) letters. Writing in uncials was more common in the earlier centuries, but it was gradually replaced by the more convenient minuscule script. Copyists’ errors are more common in the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament than in the Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament. But the variations in the Greek manuscripts do not seriously affect our understanding of what the New Testament writers wrote. There are in existence over five thousand manuscripts of the Greek New Testament (in part or in whole), and although these increase the number of variations, they also increase the possibility of eliminating the errors. The most valuable manuscripts come from the period of the fourth to the sixth centuries AD, though there are earlier ones. As a rule, the earlier the manuscript, the more likely it is to be correct. On the other hand a more recent manuscript could be more accurate if it was copied from a much earlier and more reliable manuscript. One way of checking the accuracy of manuscripts is to compare them with early translations of the New Testament, or with quotations from the New Testament in the writings of early authors. As they study all this evidence, experts are able to assess the value of manuscripts and arrange them in groups according to their common features. It has become apparent that different groups of manuscripts belonged originally to different regions (e.g. Rome, Alexandria, Byzantium). This gives scholars an indication of the kinds of manuscripts that were in use at various stages of the early church’s history, and so helps towards determining the exact wording of the original writing.
A reliable tex
t Using all the material available to them, those skilled in the processes outlined above can prepare accurate editions of the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament. These books are called texts. Modern translations of the Bible are made from these texts, not from the ancient manuscripts. Most of the manuscripts are carefully preserved in museums or places of learning around the world. No doubt as there are further discoveries and further insights into ancient languages and practices, there will be further revisions of the Hebrew and Greek texts. Any changes will probably be only minor, as history has shown that changes made to the text through fresh discoveries have been comparatively few and unimportant. In spite of damage to the ancient manuscripts through wear and tear, misuse, copyists’ errors and government opposition, the Scriptures have remained intact, essentially as they were when first written. God has preserved his Word in such a way that no important teaching is anywhere affected.
MAR’S HILL
See AREOPAGUS.
MARRIAGE
From the beginning God’s ideal for marriage has been that one man and one woman live together, independent of parents, in lifelong union (Gen 2:18-24; Matt 19:4-6). This ideal union is broken only by death, in which case the surviving partner is free to remarry (Rom 7:2-3; 1 Cor 7:39; 1 Tim 5:14).
Polygamy in the Old Testament
The early history of the human race is one of almost total departure from God, so that only a very small minority of people retained any real understanding of God (Gen 6:1-8; Rom 1:20-27). Polygamy, the practice of having several wives at the same time, became so widespread that even God’s people did not always regard it as wrong (Gen 25:6; 2 Sam 5:13; 1 Kings 11:1-3). Inevitably, jealousy and conflict resulted, leading them eventually to recognize that God’s ideal of monogamy was best (Gen 21:8-10; 29:21-30:24; Deut 21:15-17; Judg 8:30-9:6; 1 Sam 1:4-8; 2 Sam 3:2-5; 1 Kings 11:1-8). In ancient Israel it was considered a matter of social shame if a wife did not have children (Gen 16:1; 30:1; 1 Sam 1:10-11; Luke 1:7). According to one custom, if a wife was not able to have children, she may have allowed her husband to produce a child by her maidservant. All legal rights over the child belonged to the wife, not the maid (Gen 16:2; 30:1-8). (Concerning the case where a married man died without leaving children see WIDOW.)
Marriage customs
Among the ancient Israelites, engagement to marry was almost as binding as marriage. Unfaithfulness within an engagement was considered as bad as adultery (Deut 22:23-27; Matt 1:18-20). Parents usually chose the marriage partners for their sons and daughters (Gen 21:21; 24:1-4; 38:6; Ruth 3:1-5), though they may have taken into consideration any preference that a son or daughter indicated (Gen 24:58-61; 34:4,8; Judg 14:2; 1 Sam 18:20-21). The custom was for the bridegroom to give some payment or service to the parents of the bride as the price for the daughter he had taken from them (Gen 29:18,30; 34:12; 1 Sam 18:25). The bride’s parents usually gave a gift to the married couple which, in wealthy families, often consisted of servants or land (Gen 29:24,29; Judg 1:15; 1 Kings 9:16). Both the bridegroom and the bride wore special clothes for the wedding ceremony and the associated festivities (Isa 61:10; Jer 2:32; Rev 19:7-8; 21:2). The bridegroom had his best man, and the bride her bridesmaids (Ps 45:14; John 3:29). The bridegroom and his friends went and brought the bride from her father’s house to his own house, where the feast was held (Ps 45:14-15; Matt 25:1-13). The wedding feast was a time of great celebration, and all who were invited as guests were given special clothes for the occasion (Matt 22:1-4,11-12; John 2:1-11). Festivities sometimes went on for a week (Gen 29:27; Matt 9:14-15).
Total union
Whatever the traditions or procedures, marriage is more than a social custom or a legal arrangement. It is also more than a sexual relationship. It is an unselfish giving of each partner to the other in a union that excludes all others. God intends people to have and to enjoy sexual relations, but only as part of a total relationship where a man and a woman commit themselves to each other for life (Matt 19:5-6; Heb 13:4). Divorce is not part of God’s plan for human society (Mal 2:16; Matt 5:32; 19:8-9; see DIVORCE). Human sexuality is one of God’s gifts to humankind and, like all God’s gifts, it can be properly enjoyed or shamefully abused (1 Thess 4:4-5; 1 Tim. 4:3-4). The Bible encourages a healthy enjoyment of sex within marriage (Prov 5:18-19; Eccles 9:9; Song of Songs 1:12-13; 7:6-13; 8:1-3), but it forbids sexual relations before marriage or with any person other than one’s marriage partner (Lev 18:6-18; 20:10; Deut 22:20-22; Mal 2:14; Mark 6:18; Rom 7:2; cf. Matt 5:27-28; see ADULTERY; FORNICATION). It condemns prostitution, incest, bestiality and homosexual practices as perversions. They are sins against one’s own body (Lev 18:22-23; 19:29; 20:14-17; Rom 1:26-27; 1 Cor 6:9-10,13-18; Rev 22:15). In marriage as God intended it, there is an equality between the man and the woman (Gen 2:23-24). Though there may be physical, emotional and psychological differences between the male and the female, the two complement each other so that each is equipped to do what the other cannot. Together they form a unit, with each dependent on the other (1 Cor 7:3-4; 11:11-12).
God holds the man ultimately responsible for the household that comes into being through the marriage (Gen 3:9-12; 1 Cor 11:3; cf. Rom 5:12). Husbands have at times thought this responsibility gives them special privileges that allow them to treat their wives as inferiors instead of as equals (Gen 3:16), but such a state of affairs was not God’s original intention. Sin has spoiled the marriage relationship as it has spoiled everything else in human society. However, because of the exercise of Christian love, Christian marriage ought to achieve marital harmony, even in circumstances where other marriages do not. Christian love is the sort of self-sacrificing love that Christ exercised – serving others rather than pleasing self. Husband and wife must exercise such love towards each other (Eph 5:1-2), though the husband in particular is required to make sacrifices (Eph 5:25-29). Likewise husband and wife must exercise submission to each other (Eph 5:21), though the wife in particular is required to recognize the husband’s headship of the family (Eph 5:22-24). Where each is prepared to sacrifice self-interest for the sake of the other, the marriage will be enriched (Eph 5:33; see HUSBAND; WIFE). It will also be a fitting picture of the relationship between Christ and his church (Eph 5:29-32).
Special considerations
Since their relationship with Christ governs all their other relationships, Christians should not marry those who do not share their faith in Jesus Christ (2 Cor 6:14-16; cf. 1 Cor 7:39). However, where one partner of a non-Christian marriage later becomes a Christian, the marriage should be maintained. God understands the circumstances, and the Christian should do everything possible to make the marriage work harmoniously (1 Cor 7:12-16). In certain circumstances it may be God’s will for a person not to marry, and this may at times require much self-discipline (Jer 16:2; Matt 19:12; 1 Cor 1:7-8,17,32-35). Even among those who intend to marry, self-discipline is necessary. They must take into consideration the added responsibilities that marriage brings (1 Cor 7:32-34), and must not marry hastily, particularly when there is the possibility of increased social and economic hardship (1 Cor 7:25-31).
But if an unmarried person is constantly aflame with sexual passion, it may be better to marry, lest the temptations prove to be too great (1 Cor 7:9,36-38; cf. 7:5). While the Christian teaching on marriage is based on principles that the Creator set out for his creatures, it also acknowledges the weaknesses of human nature and the need to deal with them sensibly. Christian morality requires God’s people to uphold his standards when others want to destroy them. At the same time Christian love requires them to give support to those who, having ignored God’s law, are sorry for their sin and need help in rebuilding their lives (John 8:1-11; 1 Cor 6:9-11; Gal 6:1-2).
MARTHA
Martha, Mary and their brother Lazarus lived in the village of Bethany, just outside Jerusalem (John 11:1,18). Jesus knew the family well (John 11:5), for he had probably been there often to get away from the crowds and enjoy some rest and fellowship. That was probably why he rebuked Martha on one occasion. She busied herself with much preparation for a special meal, whereas Jesus was looking only for some quiet and relaxing conversation with his friends. Mary, realizing this, talked with Jesus, and in so doing she benefited from the words he spoke (Luke 10:38-42). Some time after this, Lazarus fell ill. The sisters sent for Jesus, but by the time Jesus arrived, Lazarus was dead (John 11:1-6,17). Martha and Mary were convinced that if Jesus had been there, he could have done something to stop Lazarus from dying (John 11:19-21,28-32). Martha still believed that Jesus had the power to do anything (John 11:22) and, in response to Jesus’ question, she reaffirmed her faith in him as the Messiah, the Son of God (John 11:25-27).
Jesus’ resurrection of Lazarus demonstrated not only the power that Jesus had over death, but also the unity that Jesus had with his Father in all his works (John 11:41-44). A few days later, when Jesus and his disciples were having a meal with Lazarus and his two sisters, Mary anointed his feet with costly ointment. Jesus saw this as a symbolic anointing in preparation for his burial, which would soon take place (John 12:1-8). When, during the last few days before the crucifixion, Jesus and his disciples went out to Bethany at night to sleep, this house was probably the place where they slept (Mark 11:11-12,19; Matt 21:17). (If the anointing by Mary referred to above was the same as that recorded in Matthew 26:6-13, the person called Simon the leper was possibly Martha’s father or husband.)
MARTYR
Martyrs are those who stand firm in the midst of persecution and willingly suffers death rather than deny their faith (Acts 7:54-60; 12:1-2; 22:20; Rev 2:13). The word ‘martyr’ comes from the Greek word that is used in the New Testament for ‘witness’ and ‘testimony’. People became known as martyrs when they died because of their witness, or testimony, to their Lord (Rev 6:9-11; 12:11; 17:6; 20:4). In the end the victors will be the martyrs, not their opponents. The basis of this assured victory is the death and resurrection of Christ, who is himself the faithful and true witness (2 Tim 4:6-8,18; Rev 12:10- 11; 20:4; cf. 1:5, 3:14). (See also PERSECUTION; WITNESS.)
MARY
Six women in the New Testament had the name Mary. The lesser known of these were the mother of John Mark (Acts 12:12; for details see MARK), a member of the church in Rome (Rom 16:6), and a woman who was wife of Clopas and mother of two sons, James and Joseph (Matt 27:56; Mark 15:40,47; 16:1; John 19:25). This last-named Mary was one of several women from Galilee who helped look after the needs of Jesus and his disciples. They travelled with Jesus around Palestine and were present at his crucifixion. Another in that group was also named Mary. She came from the town of Magdala in Galilee and was known as Mary Magdalene, to distinguish her from the other Marys (Matt 27:55-56; Luke 8:1-3). Mary Magdalene had become a follower of Jesus early in his ministry, when he had healed her of evil spirits (Luke 8:2). On the morning of Jesus’ resurrection, she and some others, including Mary the mother of James and Joseph, went to anoint the body of Jesus, but found the tomb empty (Matt 28:1-5; John 20:1). She brought Peter and John to the tomb, then, after they had left, met the risen Jesus (John 20:2- 18). Another Mary was the sister of Martha and Lazarus. The three lived at Bethany, just outside Jerusalem, and were close friends of Jesus (John 11:1,5). In the biblical record, Mary and Martha are usually mentioned together. (For further details see MARTHA.)
The mother of Jesus
By far the most important Mary in New Testament times was the mother of Jesus. She was blessed above all women, for God chose her to be the mother of the Messiah (Luke 1:28,32,42-43). At the time God revealed this to Mary, she lived in the town of Nazareth in Galilee, where she was engaged to be married to a local carpenter named Joseph. (Concerning the families from which Mary and Joseph came see JOSEPH THE HUSBAND OF MARY.) God revealed to Mary that, while still a virgin, she would become pregnant. This would come about through the direct creative power of God’s Spirit, so that her son would be unique. Though fully human, he would also be the Son of God (Luke 1:30-35). Mary accepted the will of God for her without question (Luke 1:38). She praised God that he chose her, just an ordinary person from a humble family, to be the means by which he would bring his blessing to the world. Through her baby, God would fulfil the promises given to Abraham and David (Luke 1:46- 56). For the next three months Mary stayed with her friend and relative, Elizabeth, in Judea. When she returned to Nazareth pregnant, Joseph was deeply troubled, but he too submitted to God’s will after he received a revelation of the divine purposes (Luke 1:56; Matt 1:18-25). Some months later, Joseph and Mary moved to Bethlehem in Judea for a census, and there the baby was born (Luke 2:1-7,19). When Joseph and Mary later took the baby to Jerusalem for certain Jewish ceremonies, Mary learnt a little of what lay ahead. Although her son would be a Saviour, he would also attract bitter opposition, which would in turn cause Mary pain and sorrow (Luke 2:22-23,34-35). Because of the threat of violence from Herod, Joseph sought safety for Mary and the baby Jesus by taking them to Egypt.
After Herod’s death the family returned to Palestine and settled in Nazareth (Matt 2:13-14,19-23). Joseph and Mary brought Jesus up to be obedient to his parents and to be instructed in the teachings of the Old Testament (Luke 2:42-46,51). They did not, however, have a clear understanding of the unique relationship that Jesus had with his heavenly Father (Luke 2:49). Even when he began his public ministry, Jesus found it necessary to remind his mother that he was to use his divine power solely in accordance with his Father’s will. He would not use it merely to please friends and family (John 2:3-4). The children born to Mary and Joseph after Jesus were James, Joseph, Simon, Judas and at least two daughters (Matt 13:55-56; Mark 6:3).
When Jesus set out on his public ministry, his brothers did not believe him to be the Messiah. They thought that he was suffering from some sort of religious madness. On one occasion when they expressed their annoyance with him, Mary was with them (Mark 3:21,31-35; John 7:3-5). Nevertheless, Mary was convinced of her son’s messiahship and remained devoted to him even to the cross (John 19:25-27). Jesus’ resurrection seems to have changed his brothers, for in the days immediately after his ascension, they along with Mary were among the group of Jerusalem believers who met for fellowship and prayer (Acts 1:14; cf. 1 Cor 15:7).
MASTER
Throughout the countries of the region of the Bible story, many households were very large and included slaves and hired workers. The head of the household was commonly referred to as the master, and he exercised considerable authority (Gen 14:14; 24:2,9; 1 Sam 25:14,17). In recognition of the dangers that accompanied such authority, Israelite law laid down that a master did not have the right to treat his servants as he wished. He had to recognize their rights, and be fair and honest in all his dealings with them (Exod 21:8-11,20,26-27; see SLAVE). The New Testament further emphasizes the responsibility of masters towards their servants. Christian masters in particular are to be careful the way they treat their servants, because they themselves are answerable to a master, Jesus the Lord (Eph 6:9; Col 4:1; see WORK). All Christians are servants of this divine Master and must give him their total allegiance (Matt 6:24; see JESUS CHRIST, sub-heading ‘Jesus as Lord’). One day their Master will assess their faithfulness in service and reward them accordingly (Matt 25:14-30; Mark 13:33-37; Rom 14:4; 1 Cor 4:1-5; see also STEWARD).
MEASUREMENT
There is no certainty about present-day equivalents of many of the measurements given in the Bible. These measurements probably varied considerably even in Bible times. (Concerning measurements of weight and the cheating that was common where there were few official standards, see WEIGHTS.) Measures of capacity for grain and for liquids sometimes had different names. The largest measure of capacity was the homer, or cor, equal to about 370 litres (Lev 27:16; 1 Kings 4:22). The homer, or cor, was divided into ten smaller measures. In the case of grain this measure was called an ephah (Judg 6:19; Ezek 45:11) and in the case of liquids a bath (Ezra 7:22; Ezek 45:11). The grain measure, the ephah, was divided into ten omers (Exod 16:36). The liquid measure, the bath, was divided into six hins (Lev 23:13). A hin was divided into twelve logs (Lev 14:10). People in ancient times, as in the present day, often measured length by calculating according to the span of their fingers, the length of their arms, the distance they could walk in a set time, and so on. The basic measurement of length, the cubit, was the approximate distance from the elbow to the tip of the finger. More exactly, the cubit was about forty-four centimetres or eighteen inches (Exod 25:23; Deut 3:11; Rev 21:17; see CUBIT).
Half a cubit was a span, the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the little finger on an outstretched hand (Exod 28:16; 1 Sam 17:4). A handbreadth, or four fingers, was the distance across the hand at the base of the four fingers. It was equal to about a third of a span (Exod 25:25; Jer 52:21). Longer distances may have been calculated in cubits (Num 35:4), but more often they were estimated approximately; for example, the distance a fired arrow might travel (Gen 21:16), the length of a ploughed furrow (1 Sam 14:14), or the distance a person could walk in a day (Num 11:31; Gen 30:36). A Sabbath day’s journey was the distance that the Jewish leaders laid down as the maximum a person was allowed to travel on the Sabbath day. It was about one kilometre (Exod 16:29; Acts 1:12).
MEDIA
Media was an ancient kingdom to the north of Persia. It appears in the Bible story mainly as a partner of Persia, who had conquered it in the reign of the Persian king Cyrus. The combined army of Media and Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC, after which Persia became the supreme power in the region. Medes shared as equals with Persians in the military and civil administration of the Persian Empire, and sometimes the names Medes and Persians were used interchangeably (Ezra 6:1-3; Esther 1:3,14,19; Isa 13:17; 21:2; Jer 51:11,28; Dan 5:30-31; 6:8,28; 8:20; 9:1; 11:1). (For further details see PERSIA.)
MEDIATOR
Human beings, because of sin, are cut off from God and unable to bring themselves back to God (Gen 3:22-24; Isa 59:2; Eph 2:3; Col 1:21; see SIN). Therefore, there needs to be a mediator who can stand between them and God, and somehow bring them back to him. The only person who can really do this is Jesus Christ. He alone was both human and divine, and, being sinless, bore sin’s penalty on behalf of the guilty. Through him repentant sinners can be brought back to God and enjoy the fellowship with God that he desires for them (2 Tim 2:5-6; 1 Peter 3:18; see RECONCILIATION; REDEMPTION).
The work of Jesus through his life, death and resurrection is therefore the basis on which God deals with human sin and brings repentant sinners back to himself. This applies even to believers who lived in Old Testament times. Such people may not have known about Jesus’ death, but the eternal God did (Rev 13:8). Through the nation Israel God taught the principles of his salvation. He chose Israel to be his people and gave them an order of priests and sacrifices as a means of approaching him (Exod 19:5-6; Lev 4:27- 30; Num 3:10; see COVENANT; PRIEST; SACRIFICE).
In making the covenant with Israel, God used Moses as the mediator (Exod 24:3-8; Acts 7:38; Gal 3:19-20). The people, in their approach to God, used the priests as mediators (Lev 5:17-18; 16:15-17; Heb 5:1). With the coming of Jesus Christ, the covenant with Israel had fulfilled its purpose. God has now established a new and eternal covenant, Jesus Christ being the mediator (Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24). He is also the priest through whom people approach God (John 14:7; Heb 4:14-16; 9:24; 13:15; 1 Peter 2:5). The basis on which this new covenant operates is Christ’s sacrificial death (Col 1:21-22; 1 Tim 2:5-6; Heb 9:11-15). Yet the earthly life of Christ is also important. Because of his experiences as one who has lived in the world of ordinary people, he understands the problems of believers. As a result he can plead sympathetically with God on their behalf, as well as bring God’s help to them (Heb 2:17-18; 4:15; 7:25). (For further details see PRIEST, sub-heading ‘The high priesthood of Jesus’.)
MEEKNESS
In the Bible, meekness is so closely linked with humility, gentleness and kindness that the reader may have difficulty distinguishing between them. Together they represent a quality of human nature that was found perfectly in Jesus Christ (2 Cor 10:1), and that is desirable in all those who follow him (Eph 4:1-2). There is nothing weak or colourless about meekness. It is the very opposite of all that is self-centred, and therefore is a quality of strength. It enables people not merely to be patient when suffering unjust criticism or persecution, but to be positively forgiving (Col 3:12-13; Titus 3:2; see PATIENCE). The meek do not demand revenge, but leave the matter in God’s hands (Num 12:1-3; 16:4-5; 1 Peter 2:20-23).
They do not insist upon their rights, but when circumstances arise where they are forced either to defend themselves or correct opponents, they do so with gentleness (2 Tim 2:25; 1 Peter 3:15). Jesus is the perfect example of meekness. He never made a show to attract praise for himself, and never damaged the faith of even the weakest believer (Matt 12:19-20; 18:5-6; 21:5). Yet he never hesitated to denounce cruelty, pride, injustice and hypocrisy, even when it made him unpopular (Matt 15:7-14; 21:12-13; 23:13,33). He submitted to his Father and willingly served the needy around him (Matt 20:28; John 5:30), and he expected others to do likewise. As the meek and gentle one, he accepted the burden of sin on behalf of repentant sinners. At the same time he demanded that they accept his lordship in their daily lives (Matt 11:28-30; cf. Ps 25:8-10). Meekness is a characteristic of life in Christ’s kingdom (Matt 5:5); therefore, those who enter that kingdom must exercise meekness (Matt 20:25-26). They will learn to do this as the indwelling Spirit of God changes them into the likeness of Christ and produces the quality of meekness in them (Gal 5:22-23; Phil 2:3-5). (See also HUMILITY.)
MEGIDDO
The town of Megiddo in northern Canaan fell to Israel at the time of Joshua’s conquest, though the local inhabitants were not totally destroyed. In the division of Canaan among Israel’s tribes, Megiddo came within the tribal allotment of Issachar. The neighbouring tribe of Manasseh was more powerful and took over the town, claiming it could drive out the remaining Canaanites, but it was not able to (Josh 12:7,21; 17:11; Judg 1:27). In the days of Solomon, Megiddo was an important administrative centre in the north. It was also a strategic defence city (1 Kings 4:12; 9:15-19). Being situated at the western end of the Plain of Esdraelon, at the point where the main north-south and east-west highways crossed, it was involved in a number of important battles (Judg 5:19; 2 Kings 9:27; 23:29). (For map and other details of the region see PALESTINE.) In the symbolism of the book of Revelation, Megiddo is the scene of the last great battle, when God destroys all enemies (Rev 16:16. ‘Armageddon’ means ‘hill of Megiddo’ ).
MELCHIZEDEK
When Abraham was returning from victory over a group of invaders, he was met by Melchizedek, the ruler of the Canaanite city-state of Salem. (This appears to be the place later known as Jerusalem.) Like Abraham, Melchizedek was a worshipper of the Most High God. In fact, he was God’s priest, and he reminded Abraham that God was the one who had given Abraham victory. Abraham acknowledged this by offering to God a costly sacrifice, which he presented through God’s priest (Gen 14:17-20; Heb 7:1-4). Several centuries later, when the nation Israel had settled in Canaan, David conquered Jerusalem and made it his national capital. To celebrate his victory he wrote a psalm to be sung by the Levitical singers.
It was as if David had become a successor to Melchizedek and heir to all Melchizedek’s titles. As ruler of Salem, he was like a king-priest who represented God to his people and whose authority seemed unlimited (Ps 110:1-7). When the psalm was applied literally to David, it was extravagant, but in later times Jews applied it to the expected Messiah. Jesus agreed that this was a correct application (Matt 22:42-45). A song of lavish praise, extravagant when applied to David, was fitting when applied to Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ is a high priest after the order of Melchizedek, and his priesthood is complete and eternal. Like Melchizedek, Christ is a king and a priest, a combination not allowed in the traditional Israelite system. The Levitical priests of Israel kept family records of people’s ancestry, birth and death, to confirm a person’s right to the priesthood. But there were no such records for Melchizedek, as his kind of priesthood was not limited by time or Levitical laws. In this way he foreshadowed Christ, whose priesthood is for all people of all eras and all nations (Heb 7:3,15-17; see PRIEST, sub-heading ‘The high priesthood of Jesus’).
MEMPHIS
The ancient Egyptian city of Memphis, though not in existence today, was situated on almost the same site as the present-day city of Cairo; that is, on the Nile River, about 180 kilometres from its mouth. It was the administrative centre of the first king to unite Upper and Lower Egypt (about 3000 BC), and was capital of Egypt for much of the period before Abraham. It continued to be an important city up till the time of its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 BC (Isa 19:13; Jer 44:1; 46:14,19; Ezek 30:13; Hosea 9:6). (For map and other details see EGYPT.)
MEN
In the social and family order that God has set out for human society, men and women have complementary roles. Though equal in status before God (Gen 1:27; Gal 3:28; 1 Peter 3:7), they are different in body and personality, so that each is suited in different ways to deal with different needs and responsibilities. The basic unit of human society is the family, and the ultimate responsibility for the family’s wellbeing rests with the man.
As husband he must care for his wife, and as father he must care for his children. In relation to his wife he must treat her as an equal (Eph 5:25,28; 1 Peter 3:7; see HUSBAND), and in relation to his children he must bring them up with love, firmness and understanding (Eph 6:4; Col 3:21; see FAMILY). Sexual passion is usually stronger in men than in women, and for this reason the Bible gives special warnings to men concerning sexual temptations (Prov 7:6-23; Hosea 4:14; Matt 5:28; 1 Thess 4:4-5; 2 Tim 2:22; Titus 2:6; see ADULTERY; FORNICATION; PROSTITUTION). Older men are to be an example to younger men in demonstrating the worth of a life of self-control (Titus 2:2). In the church both men and women have their special responsibilities (1 Tim 2:12-15; see WOMEN). Again men are warned not to misuse their position, and in particular not to talk and act in a way that is boastful or arrogant (1 Tim 2:8). No matter what their position, whether in the church, the family or society, they are accountable to God. And the greater the responsibility, the stricter will be the judgment (1 Cor 11:3; Eph 6:9; James 3:1).
MENAHEM
Few Israelite kings were as ruthless in achieving their ambitions as Menahem. In 752 BC he seized the throne by murdering the previous king, then smashed any opposition to his rule with the most brutal cruelty (2 Kings 15:14,16). He survived for ten years, but only by buying the protection of Assyria. This policy was not only economically costly to Israel, but it also opened the way for eventual conquest by Assyria (2 Kings 15:17,19-20).
MERCY
A characteristic of God is that he is merciful and compassionate (Exod 34:6; Neh 9:17; Ps 103:13; 2 Cor 1:3; Eph 2:4). This characteristic showed itself clearly in Jesus Christ who, though God, lived in the world as a human being and demonstrated the mercy that God has towards a needy human race (Matt 9:36; 14:14; Luke 7:13). The most striking demonstration of divine mercy is God’s great act of salvation in saving sinners from the just consequences of their sins and giving them forgiveness and eternal life (Num 14:18-19; Ps 86:5; Isa 63:9; Rom 2:4; 11:32; Titus 3:4-5; 1 Peter 2:3).
Even in the rituals of the Old Testament, the sinners were dependent entirely on God’s mercy for their acceptance with God. It was God’s mercy, not their religious acts, that saved them. For this reason God’s throne was called the mercy seat. It was the place where God symbolically sat and where he mercifully accepted repentant sinners into his presence (Exod 25:21-22; cf. Heb 4:16; see TABERNACLE). Those who claim to be God’s people must also be merciful and compassionate (Luke 6:36; 10:36-37; Col 3:12; 1 Peter 2:10).
This means more than that they should have pity and concern for others. They must actually do something (James 2:15-16; 1 John 3:17-19). In particular they should give help to those in society who are liable to be disadvantaged, such as orphans, widows, aliens, the persecuted, the afflicted and the poor (Deut 14:28-29; 24:19; Prov 19:17; Micah 6:8; Zech 7:9-10; Luke 10:29-37; Rom 12:8; James 1:27). They should show mercy even to those who annoy or oppose them (2 Kings 6:21-22; Luke 6:35; Rom 12:20; Eph 4:32). Jesus’ parables and other teachings are a constant reminder that God takes notice of the way people treat others. God promises that he will have mercy upon those who practise mercy to others (Matt 5:7; 25:34-40). Those who show no mercy to others will receive no mercy from God in the day of judgment (Matt 18:21-35; Luke 16:24-26; James 2:13). (See also GRACE; LOVE.)
MESOPOTAMIA
Originally the name ‘Mesopotamia’ was given to the fertile land around the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers (Gen 24:10; Deut 23:4; Judg 3:8-10; 1 Chron 19:6). By New Testament times it applied to the whole of the Euphrates-Tigris valley, so that even the city of Ur, which was near the mouth of the Euphrates, was considered to be in Mesopotamia (Acts 2:9; 7:2). (For details see ARAM; ASSYRIA; BABYLON; EUPHRATES; SYRIA; TIGRIS.)
MESSIAH
The word ‘messiah’ is a Hebrew word meaning ‘the anointed one’. Israelites of Old Testament times anointed kings, priests, and sometimes prophets to their positions by the ceremony of anointing. In this ceremony a special anointing oil was poured over the head of the person as a sign that he now had the right, and the responsibility, to perform the duties that his position required (Exod 28:41; 1 Kings 1:39; 19:16; see ANOINTING). In the Greek speaking world of New Testament times the word ‘christ’, also meaning anointed, was used as a Greek translation of the Hebrew ‘messiah’.
Old Testament expectations
The most common Old Testament usage of the title ‘anointed’ was in relation to the Israelite king, who was frequently called ‘the Lord’s anointed’ (1 Sam 24:10; Ps 18:50; 20:6). In the early days of Israel’s existence, when it was little more than a large family, God signified that the leadership of the future Israelite nation would belong to the tribe of Judah. From this tribe would come a great leader who would rule the nations in a reign of peace, prosperity and enjoyment (Gen 49:9-12). Centuries later, God developed this plan by promising King David (who belonged to the tribe of Judah) a dynasty that would last for ever (2 Sam 7:16). The people of Israel therefore lived in the expectation of a time when all enemies would be destroyed and the ideal king would reign in a worldwide kingdom of peace and righteousness. This coming saviour-king they called the Messiah. In promising David a dynasty, God promised that he would treat David’s son and successor as if he were his own son (2 Sam 7:14). From that time on, Israelites regarded every king in the royal line of David as, in a sense, God’s son; for he was the one through whom God exercised his rule. The Messiah, David’s greatest son, was in a special sense God’s son (Ps 2:6-7; Mark 10:47; 12:35; 14:61). Because of their expectation of a golden age, the Israelite people saw victories over enemies as foreshadowings of the victory of the Messiah and the establishment of his kingdom. They praised their kings in language that was too extravagant to be literally true of those kings. The language expressed the ideals that Israel looked for in its kings, but it could apply fully only to the perfect king, the Messiah (e.g. Psalms 2, 45, 72, 110).
Messianic interpretations
The idealism of the prophets was not fulfilled in any of the Davidic kings of the Old Testament, but this did not cause the people of Israel to lose hope. They constantly looked for the one who would be the great ‘David’ of the future, the great descendant of David the son of Jesse (Ps 89:3-4; Isa 9:2-7; 11:1-10; Jer 23:5; Ezek 34:23-24; Micah 5:2). This king, this Messiah, was Jesus Christ (Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:22-23; 21:9; Luke 1:32-33,69-71; Rev 5:5). One of David’s best known psalms, Psalm 110, was interpreted by Jews of Jesus’ time as applying to the Messiah, though they consistently refused to acknowledge the messiahship of Jesus. Jesus agreed that they were correct in applying this psalm to the Messiah, but he went a step further by applying it to himself (Ps 110:1; Matt 22:41-45). Since the king of Psalm 110 was also a priest, Jesus was not only the messianic king but also the messianic priest (Ps 110:4; Heb 5:6; 7:1-28; see PRIEST, sub-heading ‘The high priesthood of Jesus’). This joint rule of the priest-king Messiah had been foreshadowed in the book of the prophet Zechariah (Zech 6:12-13). The Messiah was, in addition, to be a prophet, announcing God’s will to his people. As the Davidic kings in some way foreshadowed the king-messiah, so Israel’s prophets in some way foreshadowed the prophet-messiah. Again the ideal was fulfilled only in Jesus (Deut 18:15; Luke 24:19; John 6:14; 7:40; Acts 3:22-23; 7:37; Heb 1:1-2).
Jesus and the Jews
Although Jesus was the Messiah, he did not at the beginning of his ministry announce his messiahship openly. This was no doubt because the Jews of his time had a wrong understanding of the Messiah and his kingdom. The Jews had little interest in the spiritual work of the Messiah. They were not looking for a spiritual leader who would deliver people from the enemy Satan and bring them under the rule and authority of God. They looked rather for a political leader who would deliver them from the power of Rome and bring in a new and independent Israelite kingdom, where there would be peace, contentment and prosperity. If Jesus had announced himself publicly as the Messiah before showing what his messiahship involved, he would have attracted a following of the wrong kind (see KINGDOM OF GOD; MIRACLES). While not refusing the title ‘Messiah’, Jesus preferred to avoid it when speaking of himself. Instead he called himself the Son of man. This was a title that had little meaning to most people (they probably thought Jesus used it simply to mean ‘I’ or ‘me’), but it had a special meaning to those who understood the true nature of Jesus’ messiahship (see SON OF MAN). Just as Jesus opposed Satan who tempted him with the prospect of an earthly kingdom, so he opposed those who wanted him to be king because they thought he could bring them political and material benefits (John 6:15,26; cf. Matt 4:8-10).
When other Jews, by contrast, recognized Jesus as the Messiah in the true sense of the word, Jesus told them not to broadcast the fact. He was familiar with the popular messianic ideas, and he did not want people to misunderstand the nature of his mission (Matt 9:27-30; 16:13-20). He did not place the same restrictions on non-Jews, for non-Jews were not likely to use his messiahship for political purposes (Mark 5:19; John 4:25-26). Later in his ministry, when he knew that his work was nearing completion and the time for his crucifixion was approaching, Jesus allowed people to speak openly of him as the Messiah (Matt 21:14- 16). He even entered Jerusalem as Israel’s Messiah-king and accepted people’s homage (Matt 21:1-11). But when he admitted before the high priest Caiaphas that he was the Messiah, adding a statement that placed him on equality with God, he was accused of blasphemy and condemned to death (Mark 14:61- 64). When asked by the governor Pilate if he was a king, Jesus agreed that he was, though not the sort of king Pilate had in mind (Matt 27:11; John 18:33-37; cf. Acts 17:7).
The Messiah’s death and resurrection
Even true believers of Jesus’ time still thought of the Messiah solely in relation to the establishment of God’s kingdom throughout the world at the end of the age. Because of this, many believers were puzzled when Jesus did not immediately set up a world-conquering kingdom (Matt 11:2-3; Luke 24:21; Acts 1:6). Jesus pointed out that with his coming, God’s kingdom had come; the messianic age had begun. He was the Messiah, and his miracles of healing were proof of this (Isa 35:5-6; 61:1; Matt 11:4-5; Luke 4:18; 18:35-43). What the disciples could not understand was that the Messiah should die. Like most Jews they knew of the Old Testament prophecies concerning God’s suffering servant (Isa 49:7; 50:6; 52:13-53:12; see SERVANT OF THE LORD), just as they knew of the prophecies concerning God’s Messiah, but they did not connect the two. Jesus showed that he was both the suffering servant and the Messiah. In fact, it was in response to his disciples’ confession of him as the Messiah that he told them he must die (Matt 16:13-23; 17:12; Mark 10:45; Acts 4:27). Immediately after this, at the transfiguration, the Father confirmed that Jesus was both Davidic Messiah and suffering servant.
He did this by an announcement that combined a statement from a messianic psalm with a statement from one of the servant songs of Isaiah (Matt 17:5; Ps 2:7; Isa 42:1; cf. also Matt 3:17). The idea of a crucified Messiah was contrary to common Jewish beliefs. The Jews considered the Messiah as blessed by God above all others, whereas a crucified person was cursed by God (Gal 3:13). That is why the Christians’ belief in a crucified Jesus as the Saviour-Messiah was a stumbling block to the Jews (see STUMBLING BLOCK). Jesus’ resurrection provided the solution to this apparent difficulty. Even the disciples did not understand when Jesus foretold his resurrection (Mark 8:29-33; 9:31-32), but afterwards they looked back on the resurrection as God’s final great confirmation that Jesus was the Messiah (Luke 24:45-46; Acts 2:31-32,36). He was God’s anointed one (Acts 10:38; cf. Isa 61:1; Luke 4:18).
Title and name
So firmly was the Messiah identified with Jesus after his resurrection, that the Greek word for Messiah (Christ) became a personal name for Jesus. The two names were often joined as Jesus Christ or Christ Jesus, and frequently the name ‘Christ’ was used without any direct reference to messiahship at all (Phil 1:15-16,18,21). In general the Gospels and the early part of Acts use ‘Christ’ mainly as a title (‘Messiah’), and Paul’s letters use it mainly as a name. In the eyes of unbelieving Jews, Jesus was not the Messiah, and therefore they would not call him Jesus Christ. They called him Jesus of Nazareth, and his followers they called Nazarenes (Matt 26:71; John 18:4-7; Acts 24:5). To unbelieving non-Jews, however, the Jewish notion of messiahship meant nothing. To them ‘Christ’ was merely the name of a person, and the followers of this person they called Christians (Acts 11:26). (See also JESUS CHRIST.)
MICHAEL
In all the biblical references to him, Michael the archangel is in conflict with the enemies of God’s people. When, in the time of Daniel, the Jews suffered a number of setbacks because of opposition from the ruling Persian authorities, Michael came to the Jews’ rescue. An evil spirit was behind the rulers of Persia and had prevented a messenger of God from reaching Daniel, but the good spirit Michael overpowered the evil spirit and freed the heavenly messenger (Dan 10:12-14). The messenger knew that later he would be opposed by an evil spirit working on behalf of Greece (the nation that would succeed Persia as the Jews’ ruler), but he was confident that Michael’s help would again bring him victory (Dan 10:20-21).
Opposition to the Jews would increase, but God’s people could always depend on Michael to fight for them (Dan 12:1). Among Jewish writings of the period between the Old and New Testaments, there are a number that mention Michael. One New Testament writer, Jude, refers to an incident from one of these books to illustrate a point in his message. Satan had claimed that Moses’ body belonged to him, but Michael again fought on behalf of the man of God (Jude 9). Michael is mentioned also in the visions of the book of Revelation. The context concerns conflict in the spirit world, with Michael and his angels fighting on behalf of God’s people against the devil and his angels. The vision reassures the persecuted people of God that the final victory will be theirs (Rev 12:7- 9). (See also ANGELS.)
MICHAL
When Michal, the younger daughter of King Saul, fell in love with David, Saul promised her to David as wife, provided David could kill one hundred Philistines as the bride-price. Saul, being jealous of David, hoped David would be killed in the attempt, but David was spectacularly successful (1 Sam 18:20- 27). Not long after the marriage, Saul laid a plot to kill David in David’s house, but Michal’s quick thinking saved him (1 Sam 19:11-17). When David was forced to flee from Saul, Saul took Michal and gave her as wife to another man, Paltiel (1 Sam 25:44). After Saul died, David came out of hiding and was proclaimed king, though some of Saul’s former followers disputed his right to the throne. David then forced Michal’s return to him as his wife. This strengthened his claim to Saul’s throne, but it left Paltiel broken-hearted (2 Sam 3:13-16). There seems to have been no revival of Michal’s original love for David. She was actually hostile to him when he danced for joy at bringing the ark to Jerusalem. She bore him no children (2 Sam 6:16,20-23).
MIDIAN
The Midianites were a nomad people descended from Abraham and his concubine Keturah (Gen 25:1-2). They inhabited the dry barren lands on the western edge of the Arabian desert, extending around the Gulf of Aqabah and into the Sinai Peninsular. They lived in tents, kept sheep and travelled on camels (Judg 6:1,5-6; Isa 60:6; Hab 3:7). From early days they seem to have mingled with the Ishmaelites, who were descended from Abraham through another woman, the slave-girl Hagar (Gen 25:12; 37:28,36; Judg 8:24-26). Moses lived with a Midianite family after he fled from Egypt.
The head of the family, Reuel (or Jethro), was a prominent tribal chief, and Moses married one of his daughters (Exod 2:15-21). Some years later, Hobab, Moses’ Midianite brother-in-law, helped guide the travelling Israelites through some of the semi-desert country where he had grown up (Num 10:29-32). Moses’ in-laws are also called Kenites, indicating that the section of Midian to which they belonged had intermarried with the Kenites, one of the ancient peoples of Canaan (Gen 15:19; Judg 1:16; 4:11). When the Israelites were approaching Canaan, the Midianites, fearful of Israel’s power, combined firstly with the Moabites and then with the Amorites in opposing Israel’s progress. They were beaten by the Israelites twice (Num 22:4,7; 25:6-18; 31:1-12; Josh 13:21). They raided Israel repeatedly during the time of the Judges but were eventually overthrown by Gideon (Judg 6:1-6; 7:24-25; Isa 9:4; 10:26; see GIDEON).
MILCOM
See MOLECH.
MILETUS
On the west coast of southern Asia Minor were the important towns of Miletus and Ephesus. They were about fifty kilometres apart and fell within the Roman province of Asia. (For map and other details see ASIA.) When Paul visited Miletus towards the end of his third missionary journey, he invited the elders of the church at Ephesus to come and meet him at Miletus. He gave them some important instructions and warnings and then left for Jerusalem (Acts 20:15-17). He visited the town on at least one other occasion, not long before his final imprisonment and execution (2 Tim 4:20).
MILLENNIUM
The word ‘millennium’ means ‘a thousand years’. Though not found in the Bible, the word refers to the thousand years mentioned in one of the visions of the book of Revelation (Rev 20:4-6).
Symbolism in Revelation
Revelation belongs to a kind of literature known as apocalyptic, where teaching is given in the form of strange visions with symbolic meanings (see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE). Readers of the first century, being familiar with that kind of literature, probably understood the visions without too much difficulty. Readers of later generations have had much greater difficulty, and this has resulted in a variety of interpretations of the details of the book (see REVELATION, BOOK OF). Among the interpretations of Revelation 20:4-6 there have been three main viewpoints, popularly called amillennial, premillennial and postmillennial. Because of the book’s apocalyptic characteristics, which involve angelic beings, strange beasts and mysterious numbers, many interpreters hesitate to measure off an exact period of one thousand years calculated to the year, month and day. There is considerable agreement, however, that the thousand years represent a long period, whether precisely measured or not. The different viewpoints are largely concerned with determining what the thousand years reign of Christ refers to (v. 4), and this in turn is tied up with the meaning of the words ‘came to life’ (v. 4-5). Also, the different viewpoints usually consider these matters in relation to the return of Christ, even though Revelation 20 does not mention the return of Christ
. Thousand years reign with Christ
Those who believe that the thousand years reign of Christ refers to his present exaltation in glory are called amillennialists (a meaning ‘without’), because they do not believe that the vision refers to a literal reign of Christ on earth. They consider that the martyrs who ‘come to life’ and reign with Christ are believers of the present Christian era. Through their union with Christ in his death and resurrection, they have already been made alive and made to sit with him in the heavenly places (Eph 2:1,6). According to this view, the other ‘coming to life’, which takes place at the end of the thousand years, refers to a resurrection of all humankind that takes place at the return of Christ. This resurrection leads to final judgment (Acts 24:15). God’s people then enter with him into the full enjoyment of the eternal age (Rev 21:1-4).
By contrast, other interpreters consider that the thousand years reign of Christ refers to a literal reign on earth. Since Christ must return to earth before (pre) this reign can begin, they are called premillennialists. They consider that the martyrs who ‘come to life’ and reign with Christ are believers who are raised to life at Christ’s return (1 Cor 15:51-52; 1 Thess 4:16). According to this view, the other ‘coming to life’, which takes place at the end of the thousand years, refers to a second resurrection. This occurs at the end of the earthly millennium, when the wicked are raised to face final judgment (John 5:28- 29). After this comes the eternal age, where God and his redeemed people dwell together in unending joy (Rev 21:1-4). The postmillennial view is that Christ will return after (post) the millennium. This view is not as widely held as the two previous views. It has similarities with the amillennial view in its interpretation of the two groups who ‘come to life’ and in its understanding that the thousand years reign of Christ does not refer to a literal reign on earth. However, it has a more optimistic view of life in the world prior to Christ’s return. Whereas the amillennial and premillennial views expect greater opposition from the forces of antichrist (2 Thess 2:1-12), the postmillennial view expects an era of peace and contentment, brought about through the evangelization of the world. According to this view, the thousand years reign of Christ refers to the rule of the kingdom of God in the world (Matt 24:14; Rom 11:11-15).
Christ Those who believe that the thousand years reign of Christ refers to his present exaltation in glory are called amillennialists (a meaning ‘without’), because they do not believe that the vision refers to a literal reign of Christ on earth. They consider that the martyrs who ‘come to life’ and reign with Christ are believers of the present Christian era. Through their union with Christ in his death and resurrection, they have already been made alive and made to sit with him in the heavenly places (Eph 2:1,6). According to this view, the other ‘coming to life’, which takes place at the end of the thousand years, refers to a resurrection of all humankind that takes place at the return of Christ. This resurrection leads to final judgment (Acts 24:15). God’s people then enter with him into the full enjoyment of the eternal age (Rev 21:1-4). By contrast, other interpreters consider that the thousand years reign of Christ refers to a literal reign on earth. Since Christ must return to earth before (pre) this reign can begin, they are called premillennialists. They consider that the martyrs who ‘come to life’ and reign with Christ are believers who are raised to life at Christ’s return (1 Cor 15:51-52; 1 Thess 4:16). According to this view, the other ‘coming to life’, which takes place at the end of the thousand years, refers to a second resurrection.
This occurs at the end of the earthly millennium, when the wicked are raised to face final judgment (John 5:28- 29). After this comes the eternal age, where God and his redeemed people dwell together in unending joy (Rev 21:1-4). The postmillennial view is that Christ will return after (post) the millennium. This view is not as widely held as the two previous views. It has similarities with the amillennial view in its interpretation of the two groups who ‘come to life’ and in its understanding that the thousand years reign of Christ does not refer to a literal reign on earth. However, it has a more optimistic view of life in the world prior to Christ’s return. Whereas the amillennial and premillennial views expect greater opposition from the forces of antichrist (2 Thess 2:1-12), the postmillennial view expects an era of peace and contentment, brought about through the evangelization of the world. According to this view, the thousand years reign of Christ refers to the rule of the kingdom of God in the world (Matt 24:14; Rom 11:11-15).
Thousand years binding of Satan
In the visions of Revelation Chapter 20 the thousand years reign of Christ seems to correspond with the thousand years of Satan’s imprisonment (Rev 20:1-3). At the end of this time Satan is released, then, after a brief but violent rebellion, destroyed (Rev 20:7-10). The amillennial and postmillennial view understands the binding of Satan to refer to his conquest by Christ at the cross, so that people might no longer be enslaved by him (Heb 2:14-15; cf. Luke 10:17-18; 11:20-22). On this view, the rebellion of Satan refers to the great outbreak of evil by the forces of Satan at the end of the present age. The destruction of Satan comes, therefore, at the return of Christ (2 Thess 2:3- 8; Rev 16:12-21). The premillennial view understands the binding of Satan to refer to his inability to interfere during the coming earthly reign of Christ (Matt 25:31). On this view, the rebellion of Satan refers to a final attempt by Satan to overthrow Christ’s kingly rule. The destruction of Satan comes, therefore, at the end of Christ’s earthly reign (1 Cor 15:25-28).
The central truth
In spite of the different viewpoints concerning the thousand years reign of Christ, all are agreed that it speaks of the triumph of Christ that he shares with his people (Matt 19:28; Rom 5:17; Col 2:13-15; 2 Tim 2:12). All are agreed also that the return of Christ is the hope of the church, and that it encourages Christians to greater devotion, increased holiness and more enthusiastic evangelism (Matt 24:42; Luke 19:11-26; Acts 1:7-11; Titus 2:11-14; 1 John 3:2-3; 2 Peter 3:11-13). See also ANTICHRIST; DAY OF THE LORD; ESCHATOLOGY; HEAVEN; HELL; JUDGMENT; KINGDOM OF GOD; RESURRECTION; SECOND COMING.
MIND
Human beings, being made in the image of God, are different from all other animals (Gen 1:27; see IMAGE). One difference is that indefinable human characteristic called the mind. The mind does not result solely from the fact that a human being has a brain, for other animals also have brains. There is something within humans that enables them to commune with God, to think, to reason and to understand in a way that animals do not. The Bible sometimes calls this the mind, though frequently it calls it the heart (Prov 2:2-3; Heb 10:16; see HEART).
The point that the Bible emphasizes is that because humans have minds they must think and behave differently from the other animals (Ps 32:8-9; Prov 1:2-6; 18:15; Matt 22:37; Phil 1:9-10; 1 Peter 1:13-15; 2 Peter 2:12-16; see KNOWLEDGE; WISDOM). Like the rest of human nature, the mind has become corrupted through sin (Rom 1:21; 8:7; 2 Cor 3:14; 4:4; Col 1:21; Eph 4:17-18). Therefore, when people repent and believe the gospel, their minds are renewed because of their union with Jesus Christ (Rom 8:5-6; Eph 4:22-24). They must then show that this is so. They must develop new attitudes of mind, which will result in new patterns of behaviour (Rom 12:2; 2 Cor 10:5; Phil 2:5; 4:8; Col 3:2,10; 1 Peter 4:1). This use of the mind should be seen not only in the way believers behave, but also in the way they worship and serve God. They must use their minds to pray and sing intelligently (1 Cor 14:15; Col 3:16; see PRAYER; SINGING), to understand Christian teaching (Prov 2:1-5; 1 Cor 2:11-13; 2 Tim 2:7; see INTERPRETATION), to find out God’s will (Rom 12:2; Eph 5:17; Col 1:9; see GUIDANCE), to preach the gospel effectively (Acts 17:2-4; 19:8-10; see PREACHING), and to teach the Scriptures in a way that builds up the hearers (Col 1:28; Titus 1:9; see TEACHER).
MINISTER
Christian ministry is a very broad subject and may be conveniently studied through looking at topics that deal with its various aspects. According to its most common biblical usage, ‘ministry’ means ‘service’. A person who ministers to others is one who serves others; a minister of God is a servant of God (Deut 10:8; Ps 103:21; Joel 2:17; Matt 8:15; 25:44; 27:55; 2 Cor 3:6; 6:4; 11:15,23; for details see SERVANT). Different forms of the biblical word translated ‘minister’ denote a variety of people and the work they do in the church (Rom 12:7; Eph 6:21; Col 4:17; Heb 6:10; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT). The same word, transliterated ‘deacon’, refers to a recognized class of church helpers (Phil 1:1; 1 Tim 3:8; see DEACON). The pastoral leaders of the church, who are distinct from the deacons, are also ministers (Eph 4:11-12; Col 1:7; 1 Tim 1:12; 2 Tim 4:5; see APOSTLE; ELDER; TEACHER; PREACHING). The perfect minister, who is an example to all others, is Jesus Christ (Matt 20:28; John 13:14-16; Rom 15:8).
MIRACLES
God is shown in the Bible to be a God of miracles. But miracles do not feature consistently throughout the biblical record. Rather they are grouped largely around three main periods. The first of these periods was the time of the Israelites’ bondage in Egypt, which challenged God’s purposes to establish his people as an independent nation. By mighty acts God saved his people and brought them into the land he had promised them (Deut 4:34-35; Josh 4:23-24). The second period was that of Elijah and Elisha, when Israel’s religion was threatened with destruction. By some unusual miracles God preserved the minority who remained faithful to him, and acted in judgment against those who tried to wipe out the worship of Yahweh from Israel (1 Kings 19:15-18). The third period was that of the coming of the kingdom of God through Jesus Christ and the establishment of his church through those to whom he had given his special power (Acts 2:22; 3:6; 4:10; 1 Cor 12:10,28-29; 2 Cor 12:12). Of all the miracles, the greatest are those that concern the birth and resurrection of Jesus. God’s act in becoming a human being is itself a miracle so great that it overshadows the means by which it happened, namely, the miraculous conception in the womb of a virgin (Matt 1:18-23; John 1:14; see VIRGIN). The resurrection is a miracle so basic to the Christian faith that without it there can be no Christian faith (1 Cor 15:12-14; see RESURRECTION).
Miracles and nature
If we believe in a personal God who created and controls the world (Gen 1:1; Col 1:16-17), we should have no trouble in believing the biblical record of the miracles he performed. The physical creation is not something self-sufficient or mechanical, as if it were like a huge clock that, once wound up, runs on automatically till finally God stops it. The God of creation is a living God who is active in his creation (John 5:17). God deals with people as responsible beings whom he has placed in a world where everything is in a state of constant change. Being sensitive to the needs of his creatures, he may work in his creation in an extraordinary, even miraculous, way for their benefit (Exod 17:6; Josh 10:11-14; 2 Kings 4:42-44; Mark 6:47-51). On the other hand, God does not work miracles every time someone wants him to. If he did there would be chaos. God’s control of the universe is designed to produce order (Job 38:4-41; 39:1-30; Ps 147:8-9,16-18; Matt 5:45). Since God is the controller of nature, he may have performed many of his miraculous works not by doing something ‘contrary to nature’, but by using the normal workings of nature in a special way.
The miracle was in the timing, extent or intensity of the event. Such divine activity may help to explain events such as the plagues of Egypt, the crossing of the Red Sea, the crossing of the Jordan River, the collapse of Jericho’s walls and some of the healings performed by Jesus. But even if these can be explained as having natural causes, they were still miracles to those who saw them. They happened as predicted, even though the chances of their so happening appeared to be almost nil (Exod 7:17; 8:2; Josh 3:8-13). This still leaves unexplained the large number of miracles for which there seem to be no natural causes. Such supernatural interventions by God are not attacks on the so-called laws of nature. What we call the laws of nature are not forces that make things happen, but statements of what people have discovered concerning how nature works. It is God who makes things happens; the ‘laws of nature’ merely summarize the processes by which such things happen. When God acts supernaturally, his actions may be contrary to the way people has usually seen nature work, but his actions do not break any laws of nature. They merely provide new circumstances through which nature works. God is always the creator of life, the healer of diseases, the calmer of storms and the provider of food, whether he does so through the normal processes of nature or through some miraculous intervention. Through the ages God has sent the rain to water the grapes to produce the wine, but he may choose to hasten the process by turning water into wine immediately (John 2:1-11). God has also at times withheld the rain and so caused trees gradually to dry up, but again he may choose to intervene and hasten the process (Matt 21:18-19).
The purpose of miracles Miracles
were usually ‘signs’, that is, works of God that revealed his power and purposes (Exod 7:3; Deut 4:34; Isa 7:11; Matt 16:1; John 2:11; 6:14; 20:30; Acts 2:43; see SIGNS). However, messengers of God never used miracles just to impress people or to persuade people to believe them (Matt 12:38-39; Luke 23:8). It was the false prophet who used apparent miracles to gain a following (Deut 13:1-3; Matt 24:24; 2 Thess 2:9-11; Rev 13:13-14). God’s miracles were usually linked with faith (2 Kings 3:1-7; Dan 3:16-18; 6:22; Heb 11:29-30). This was clearly seen in the miracles of Jesus Christ. Jesus used miracles not to try to force people to believe in him, but to help those who already believed. He performed miracles in response to faith, not to try to create faith (Matt 9:27-29; Mark 2:3-5; 5:34,36; 6:5-6). Frequently, Jesus told those whom he had healed not to spread the news of his miraculous work. He did not want to be bothered by people who wanted to see a wonder-worker but who felt no spiritual need themselves (Matt 9:30; Mark 5:43; 8:26). Nevertheless, it is clear that many of those who saw Jesus’ miracles were filled with awe and glorified God (Matt 9:8; Luke 5:26; 7:16; 9:43). To those who believed in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah, the miracles confirmed the truth of their beliefs and revealed to them something of God’s glory (John 2:11; 11:40; Acts 14:3; Heb 2:3-4; see MESSIAH).
There was a connection between the miracles of Jesus and the era of the Messiah. This may explain why miracles were common in the early church but almost died out once the original order of apostles died out (Matt 10:5-8; Luke 9:1; 10:9; Acts 4:16,29-30; 5:12; Rom 15:19; 1 Cor 12:9-10; 2 Cor 12:12). In the record of some of Jesus’ miracles, faith is not mentioned. On those occasions Jesus acted, it seems, purely out of compassion (Matt 8:14-15; 14:13-14; 15:32; Luke 4:40; 7:11-17; John 6:1-13); though, as always, he refused to satisfy people who wanted him to perform miracles for their own selfish purposes (John 6:14-15). Jesus’ miracles demonstrated clearly that he was the Messiah, the Son of God (John 20:30-31), and that the power of the Spirit of God worked through him in a special way (Matt 12:28; Luke 4:18). Being both divine and human, he had on the one hand authority and power to work miracles, but on the other he always acted in dependence upon his Father (John 5:19; 14:10-11). His miracles were always in keeping with his mission as the Saviour of the world. They were never of the senseless or unbelievable kind such as we find in fairy stories. Jesus did not perform miracles as if they were acts of magic, and he never performed them for his own benefit (cf. Matt 4:2-10).
Jesus’ miracles and the kingdom of God
In Jesus the kingdom of God had come into the world. The rule of God was seen in the miracles by which Jesus the Messiah delivered from the power of Satan people who were diseased and oppressed by evil spirits (Matt 4:23-24; 11:2-6; 12:28; see KINGDOM OF GOD). This victory over Satan was a guarantee of the final conquest of Satan when the kingdom of God will reach its triumphant climax at the end of the world’s history (Rev 20:10). To Christians, Jesus’ miracles foreshadow the age to come. His raising of the dead prefigures the final conquest of death (Matt 11:5; John 11:24-27,44; 1 Cor 15:24-26; Rev 21:4). His healing miracles give hope for a day when there will be no more suffering (Matt 9:27-29; Mark 1:40-42; Rev 21:4). His calming of the storm foreshadows the final perfection of the natural creation (Matt 8:24-27; Rom 8:19- 21). His provisions of food and wine give a foretaste of the great banquet of God in the day of the kingdom’s triumph (John 2:1-11; Matt 14:15-21; 15:32-38; 26:29; Rev 19:9).
MIRIAM
Most likely the unnamed sister who looked after the baby Moses was Miriam (Exod 2:1-8). She was the eldest of three children who grew up to play a leading part in the establishment of Israel as a new and independent nation (1 Chron 6:3; Micah 6:4). She was a prophetess, and led the celebration that followed Israel’s victory over Egypt at the Red Sea (Exod 15:19-21). Later, Miriam and Aaron became jealous of Moses because of the supreme power he exercised in Israel (Num 12:1-2). Miriam was chiefly to blame, and God punished her with a sudden outbreak of leprosy; but when Moses prayed for her, she was healed. However, just as a daughter who had been publicly rebuked by her father had to spend seven days in shame, so did Miriam. Seven days was also the normal period of isolation for the cleansed leper (Num 12:9-15; cf. Lev 14:8). Miriam died in the wilderness between Egypt and Canaan. She was buried at Kadesh-barnea (Num 20:1).
MISSION
God has entrusted to his people the task, or mission, of spreading the message of his salvation to the world. The people who carry out this mission are therefore called missionaries. The present article uses the words ‘mission’ and ‘missionary’ in this broad sense, and not as technical names for specific organizations or people who work full time in church-sponsored activities in foreign countries. Mission is necessary because sin has cut people off from the life of God and left them in the power of Satan (Gen 3:24; Rom 1:21-25; John 3:19; Gal 5:19-21; 1 John 5:19). God, however, has made a way of salvation (and it is the only way; John 3:16; 14:6; Acts 4:12; Rom 5:17), but if the people of the world are to receive this salvation, God’s people must first of all tell them about it (Rom 10:13-15; 2 Cor 5:18-19). The Bible records the development of God’s plan for the salvation of people worldwide. God chose one man (Abraham) to father one particular nation (Israel) through whom God’s blessing would go to all nations. Israel was to be God’s representative in bringing the nations of the world to know him (Gen 12:2- 3; 22:18; Exod 19:5-6; Isa 49:6; Zech 8:22-23). Although Israel as a whole failed to carry out its task, out of it came one person, Jesus Christ, who was the Saviour of the world (Luke 2:10-11; Gal 3:16). He built a new people of God, the Christian church, to whom he entrusted the mission of taking the message of his salvation to people everywhere (Matt 28:19-20; Acts 1:8; 13:47).
Jesus and world mission
Israel failed to be God’s light to the nations, partly because the people were so self-satisfied in their status as God’s chosen people that they had no concern for others. They considered themselves assured of God’s blessing, and the Gentile nations assured of his judgment; but in this they deceived themselves (Jonah 4:2,11; Matt 3:9; Rom 2:25-29; 3:29; 9:6-7,15). Despite Israel’s failure, it was still the nation God chose and prepared to produce the world’s Saviour. Jesus therefore announced his salvation to Israel before spreading the message farther afield among the Gentiles (Matt 15:24; cf. 4:23; 13:54). He instructed the twelve apostles to do likewise (Matt 10:5-6). (For the mission of the twelve during the lifetime of Jesus see APOSTLE.) Even Paul, who was not one of the original twelve, believed he had an obligation to preach to the Jews first (Acts 13:46; 18:6; Rom 1:16). Jesus had always anticipated a wider mission to the Gentiles (Matt 8:11-12; 21:43; 28:19; John 10:16; 20:21). He told his disciples, and through them the church, to look upon the initial work in Palestine as the foundation for a wider reaching work into the Gentile world (Luke 24:46-47; Acts 1:8). He encouraged a sense of urgency in this mission by saying that he would return and bring in the new age only after his followers had preached the gospel worldwide (Matt 24:14).
Planting churches in new areas
The New Testament record of the expansion of the early church shows the sort of work the church must be prepared for if it is to fulfil its mission. Of first importance is the personal life and testimony of the Christians themselves. Through their witness the gospel spreads (Acts 8:4-6; 11:19-21; Col 1:7). But God wants more than to save people. He wants to see them baptized, made disciples of Jesus, instructed in Christian teaching and built into local churches (Matt 28:19-20; John 17:20-21; Acts 1:8; 2:41-47; 11:26; Col 1:25,28; see BAPTISM; DISCIPLE; TEACHER). Although all Christians should bear witness to Jesus, God chooses and equips certain people for the specific task of breaking into unevangelized areas with the gospel (Acts 9:15; Rom 10:14-15; 15:20; 2 Cor 10:16; Gal 1:16; see EVANGELIST). As a church recognizes such gifted people, it may send them out to devote their whole time to preaching the gospel, making disciples and planting churches. In doing so, the home church becomes a partner with its missionaries in the gospel (Acts 13:1-4; 14:27; 16:1-2; 18:22-23; cf. Phil 1:5).
Paul was a missionary sent by a church into unevangelized areas, and his example shows that missionaries must have plans and goals. Like Paul, they may make no attempt to preach in every town and village, but concentrate on planting churches in the main population centres (Acts 13:14; 14;1,8,20; 16:12; 18:1; 19:1). These churches then have the responsibility to spread the gospel into the surrounding regions, though they will do so effectively only if they themselves are spiritually healthy (Acts 13:49; 19:8-10; 1 Thess 1:8). Whatever the strategy, the missionaries must also be flexible. They must be sensitive to God’s will in changing situations, and be prepared to alter their plans if God so directs (Acts 16:6-10; 18:21; 1 Cor 16:7-9,12).
Adapting to different situations
There is only one gospel, but its presentation may be adapted to the background and needs of different audiences. Paul’s preaching in the Jewish synagogues differed from his preaching to non-Jewish idolaters (Acts 13:14-41; 14:11-17; 17:22-31). Nevertheless, it is often the case that those who appear ready-made to accept the gospel refuse it (e.g. Jews who already knew the Bible; Acts 13:45; 14:1-2; 17:1-5,13), and the most unlikely people accept it (e.g. idolaters, robbers, adulterers and perverts; Acts 19:18-20,26; 1 Cor 6:9-11). Christianity must not be identified with one level of society or one race. There should not therefore be an emphasis on one class of people to the neglect of the rest (Acts 16:14; 17:4,12; 18:3,7-8; 1 Cor 1:26; 2 Cor 8:1-2; Eph 2:14-15; 1 Tim 6:1-2,17). Nor should there be an emphasis on one sort of proclamation to the neglect of the rest (1 Cor 9:22). Missionaries may make the gospel known through preaching, discussion, debating or teaching; they may use religious buildings, public places or private homes; they may deal with mass audiences, small groups or individual enquirers (Acts 2:40-41; 5:25; 6:9- 10; 8:27-29; 11:12; 14:1; 16:13,32; 17:19; 20:22; 21:39-40; 28:17). The time that missionaries spends in one centre may vary from a few weeks to a few years (Acts 17:2; 18:11; 20:31). Patience is necessary, but that does not mean that they must remain indefinitely in one place preaching the gospel to unresponsive people, when people in other places have not yet heard (Matt 10:11-14; Acts 13:51; 17:13-14; 19:8-9).
Independence of new churches
To avoid making a church dependent on them, those who plants the church should be careful about starting programs that can only operate if they are there permanently (Acts 18:20; 20:38; 1 Cor 2:5). They should concentrate on making the Christians true disciples who can carry on the work of Christ, both in helping the church and in reaching out to the lost (Matt 28:19; Eph 4:11-13). In particular they should train those who show signs of being gifted for the more important ministries of the church (2 Tim 2:2; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT). Having taught people to trust in the Lord, missionaries must show that they also trust in the Lord, by leaving the new believers to learn by experience how to live as Christ’s people (Acts 14:23; 20:32). If the believers have been built up in the knowledge of God and his Word (Acts 11:26; 20:27), they will be able to maintain their Christian commitment after the missionaries have gone. They should even be able to spread the gospel into the surrounding regions (Acts 13:49,52; 19:10; 1 Thess 1:8-10). Though the founders of the church may leave it, they do not abandon it.
Through letters, visits and periods of temporary residence they can help it to grow (Acts 15:36; 20:2-3; 1 Cor 5:9; 7:1; 16:5,12). Each church, if it is to stand by itself, must also be able to govern itself. God has provided for the leadership of local churches through giving certain people the necessary abilities to be elders. The founders of the church have the responsibility to appoint such leaders in the church (Acts 14:23; 20:17; Titus 1:5; see ELDER). (Concerning Paul’s exercise of authority in the churches he established, see APOSTLE.) People in different churches will pray, sing, teach and worship in a variety of ways, depending on their background and culture. When missionaries plant churches in cultures different from their own, they must not impose their culture upon the new Christians, but encourage them to find suitable ways of expressing their newfound faith (cf. 1 Cor 16:20; Col 3:16-17). Christianity can function in any age and in any culture. The New Testament is not a book of rules giving instructions on the practical details of church procedures, but a collection of stories and letters providing guidance for a Spirit-directed people (Acts 20:28; 1 Cor 2:12-13; 6:5; 7:6,40; Phil 1:9). Flexibility will enable missionaries to change patterns of activity to meet the needs of different kinds of people (Acts 15:10; 1 Cor 9:20-23; Gal 2:12-14). (For the principles of church life that should guide those who establish new churches see CHURCH.) When establishing churches in new areas, missionary may choose not to accept financial support from the local people, to avoid being a burden or creating misunderstanding (1 Cor 9:12; 2 Cor 12:14-18). They might choose to do part-time secular work to help support themselves, or receive gifts of money from churches elsewhere (Acts 18:3; 20:33-34; 2 Cor 11:7-9; Phil 4:15-18; 1 Thess 2:5,9; 2 Thess 3:7-8).
Evangelism and social concern
Jesus demonstrated true Christian love by helping the poor, the sick, the despised and the victims of injustice. He taught his disciples to do likewise (Matt 8:2-3,6-7; 9:11; 25:34-35; Mark 8:1-2; 12:40; Luke 10:36-37; James 5:1-6; 1 John 3:17). Following Jesus, the early missionaries saw people not merely as souls to be saved, but as people whose bodies and minds were also in need. They were concerned for the whole person, not just part of the person. They therefore accompanied their preaching with acts of compassion, and taught the newly founded churches the social responsibilities that the gospel placed upon them (Acts 5:12; 9:34; 16:16-18; Rom 13:8-10; Gal 2:10; 6:10; 1 Tim 5:3-5; 6:18; James 1:27). Like Jesus, however, the early missionaries did not carry out their practical ministries or use their miraculous powers as a method of evangelism. They did not do good deeds for people merely to try to convert them.
They did good deeds because they had a Christian duty to do so, whether or not the people were Christians or even likely to become Christians (Acts 3:6; 5:15-16; 19:11-12; 28:8-9; James 2:15-16; see GOOD WORKS; MIRACLES). As Christians carry on the mission that Jesus started, they show people the sort of world that God wants. They work towards the goal that God has for the removal of all the effects of sin, not only in individuals and human society but also in the world of nature (Rom 8:19-23; Rev 21:4; 22:1-2; see JUSTICE; NATURE). But the root of the world’s problems is sin, and the basic task of the church’s mission is to make known the gospel of Jesus Christ. The gospel is God’s provision to deal with sin. As people respond to that gospel, they come into a right relationship with God, and then set about producing character and behaviour that is in keeping with their Christian faith (Matt 28:19-20; Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8; Rom 1:16; 15:20; Titus 3:8).
MIZPAH
The name Mizpah came from a common Hebrew word meaning ‘watchtower’ or ‘watchpost’, and was given to a number of places referred to in the Bible. The earliest mention is to a place that features in the story of Jacob where he and Laban made an agreement not to be treacherous to each other in future. They called the place Mizpah, since God was witness to their agreement, the one who ‘watched’ between them (Gen 31:44-50). In relation to the history of the nation Israel, the most important town that had the name Mizpah was in the central hill country of Palestine.
It was one of four administrative and religious centres that Samuel visited on his annual circuit (1 Sam 7:5-12,16). The town was located in the tribal area of Benjamin and had previously featured in one of the most disastrous events in Benjamin’s early history (Judg 20:1-7; 21:1-8). Israel’s first king, Saul, who was from the tribe of Benjamin, was publicly declared king in Mizpah (1 Sam 10:17-24; for map see BENJAMIN). During the period of the divided kingdom, Mizpah became an important defence outpost on Judah’s northern border with Israel (1 Kings 15:22). After the destruction of Jerusalem it became the centre from which Gedaliah, the governor appointed by Babylon, administered the scattered remains of the former kingdom (2 Kings 25:23,25; Jer 40:6-16; 41:1-18). Other places in Palestine named Mizpah were near Mount Hermon in the far north (Josh 11:3), in Gilead east of Jordan (Judg 10:17; 11:11,29,34), and in the low foothills west of the central highlands (Josh 15:38). There was also a Mizpah in Moab south-east of the Dead Sea (1 Sam 22:3).
MOAB
Among the peoples of the Palestine region who were related to the Israelites were the Moabites. They, along with the Ammonites, were descended from Lot through the children that resulted from Lot’s immorality with his two daughters (Gen 19:36-38; see also AMMON). The Moabites lived in the tableland region east of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, an area of good pastures suitable for raising sheep (Num 22:1; 2 Kings 3:4; Isa 16:1-2). The Moabites’ chief city was Heshbon (Isa 16:4; Jer 48:2) and their national god was Chemosh (Jer 48:7,46; see CHEMOSH).
Early history
Conflicts with other peoples of the region meant that Moab’s boundaries changed from time to time. At the time Israel invaded Canaan, Moab controlled only the southern portion of the territory east of the Dead Sea – from the Arnon River south to the Zered River. All Moab’s former territory north of the Arnon had been taken by the Amorite king Sihon, who then made Heshbon his capital (Num 21:13,26). In leading the Israelites north towards Canaan, Moses reached the Arnon River without having any conflict with Moab (Num 21:10-13). Now that he was entering territory controlled by the Amorites, Moses asked their permission to travel along the well used road known as the King’s Highway that passed through their territory (Num 21:21-22; Deut 2:26-29). When the Amorites responded with attack, the Israelites crushed their army and seized their territory (Num 21:23-25; Deut 2:30-37; 29:7- 8; see AMORITES). The Moabites feared this Israelite advance. Previously they had refused to supply the Israelites with food and water, but now they increased their opposition. They hired a soothsayer named Balaam to put a curse on them, believing this would ensure their destruction (Num 22:1-6). Balaam was unable to put a curse on Israel, but God put a curse on Moab (Num 23:20-21; 24:17; Deut 23:3-6; see BALAAM). Israel continued to advance, and eventually conquered Canaan. When all the conquered lands (on both sides of the Jordan) were divided among Israel’s twelve tribes, the tribe of Reuben received the former Moabite territory that Israel had taken from the Amorites. The Arnon now became Israel’s border with Moab (Deut 3:12,16).
Moab and Israel
During the time of the judges, Moab, with help from Ammon, exercised control over parts of Israel for eighteen years (Judg 3:12-14). The joint oppressors were finally overthrown by the Israelite hero, Ehud (Judg 3:15-30). Moab had further conflict with Israel during the reign of Saul (1 Sam 14:47), and became subject to Israel’s overlordship during the reign of David (2 Sam 8:2). After the decline of Israelite power through the division of the kingdom, Moab regained its independence (2 Kings 3:6-27), and gathered allies in an attempt to conquer Judah; but God saved his people (2 Chron 20:1-12,20-23). In its arrogance, Moab repeatedly boasted of its glory and mocked God’s people. As a result it brought upon itself the assurance of divine judgment (Isa 16:6-7,13; Jer 48:29-39; Zeph 2:8-11). Moab was among those whose raids helped to weaken Judah in the days of Babylon’s final assault on Jerusalem (2 Kings 24:1-2), and so made its own destruction inevitable (Ezek 25:8-11). God’s prophet warned that when that day of judgment came, all Moab’s desperate pleas for help would be useless (Isa 15:1-9; 16:1-7,12). The conquests by Babylon and Persia saw the prophecies of judgment fulfilled, and Moab’s national existence came to an end (Jer 48:42). Despite Moab’s overall hostility to Israel, there were occasions when individual Moabites showed kindness to Israelites (e.g. 1 Sam 22:3-4). The most notable example was that of the young widow Ruth, who sacrificed her own interests to help her Israelite mother-in-law (Ruth 1:2-5,16-18; 2:1). Ruth later married an Israelite. She became an ancestress of Israel’s King David, and therefore an ancestress of the Messiah Jesus (Ruth 4:13,17; Matt 1:1,5).
MOLECH
Molech (or Milcom) was the national god of the Ammonites, whose land bordered Israel’s territory east of Jordan. A well known feature of the worship of Molech was the sacrifice of children by fire, a practice that in Israel carried the death penalty (Lev 18:21; 20:2-5; 2 Kings 23:10; Jer 32:35). When Solomon married an Ammonite wife, he built a shrine for Molech, though there is no record of his using it to offer child sacrifices. The shrine was not destroyed till the reign of Josiah, three hundred years later (1 Kings 11:5,7; 2 Kings 23:10,13). In spite of the penalties and warnings, there were many occasions throughout Israel’s history when people were guilty of offering child sacrifices (Judg 10:6; 11:30-31,39; 2 Kings 17:17; 21:6; 2 Chron 28:1-3; Ps 106:38; Jer 7:31; Ezek 16:21; 20:31; 23:39). There is no record of child sacrifices by the Israelites after the Babylonian captivity.
MONEY
The Bible recognizes the possession and use of money as a legitimate part of life in human society. (Concerning the kinds of money in use in Bible times see COINS.) But the benefits that money brings are temporary, and those who become over-concerned with increasing their wealth eventually bring trouble upon themselves (Matt 6:19-23; 1 Tim 6:9-10; see WEALTH). Poverty is not desirable either, and people should use their money to help those who are in need (Deut 15:7-10; James 2:15-16; see POOR). Christians have a responsibility to give their money generously, both as an offering to God and as a service to his work in the world (2 Cor 9:6-13; see GIVING).
MONTH
Records from the time of Solomon show that the Israelites followed a calendar of twelve months to the year (1 Kings 4:7). The successive months, however, do not correspond to the twelve successive months of the calendar used throughout most of the world today. The Israelite year began with the new moon of mid-spring, which was some time during the second half of March on our calendar. Some of the names that the Israelites originally gave to the various months were changed in later times. The list below contains both old and new names, depending on which is mentioned in the Bible. A common practice was to refer to a month by its number rather than by its name; for example, ‘the fourth month’ rather than ‘Tammuz’ (2 Kings 25:3). Number Name Modern 1 Exod 12:2 Abib Exod 23:15 Mar-Apr Nisan Neh 2:1 2 Gen 7:11 Ziv 1 Kings 6:1 Apr-May 3 Exod 19:1 Sivan Esther 8:9 May-June 4 2 Kings 25:3 Tammuz June-July 5 Num 33:38 Ab July-Aug 6 1 Chron 27:9 Elul Neh 6:15 Aug-Sep 7 Gen 8:4 Ethanim 1 Kings 8:2 Sep-Oct 8 Zech 1:1 Bul 1 Kings 6:38 Oct-Nov 9 Ezra 10:9 Chislev Neh 1:1 Nov-Dec 10 Gen 8:5 Tebeth Esther 2:16 Dec-Jan 11 Deut 1:3 Shebat Zech 1:7 Jan-Feb 12 Esther 3:7 Adar Ezra 6:15 Feb-Mar The above table follows the calendar used for religious festivals, most of which were regulated according to the new moon and the full moon (Lev 23:6,24,39; Num 28:11). It seems that there was also a secular calendar, which differed from the religious calendar by six months. This meant that the first day of the seventh month of the religious calendar was New Year’s Day on the secular calendar. In everyday speech people often referred to the time of the year not according to the number or name of the month, but according to the festival season (John 2:13; 5:1; 6:4; 7:2; Acts 2:1; 12:3; 20:6,16; see FEASTS).
MOON
From early times people recognized the importance of the moon, as well as the sun, in helping to produce a variety of weather and a cycle of regular seasons (Gen 1:14-18; Ps 104:19). Early calendars were based on the phases of the moon (see MONTH), and so were Israel’s annual religious festivals (see FEASTS). The new moon marked the beginning of the month, and the full moon the middle of the month (Lev 23:24,39). The day of each new moon was a holy day on which the Israelite people offered sacrifices and held a feast. Like other holy days, it was announced by the blowing of trumpets (Num 10:10; 28:11; 1 Sam 20:5; Ezra 3:5; Ps 81:3; Ezek 46:1). The Israelites were guilty of the same wrong attitudes towards the ceremonies of the new moon as towards other religious ceremonies, and as a result God’s prophets condemned them (Isa 1:13-14; Hosea 2:11; Amos 8:5; cf. Col 2:16; see also SABBATH). God strictly prohibited any worshipping of the moon. Again there were times when the Israelites broke his commandment (Deut 4:19; 2 Kings 23:4-5; Jer 8:1-2).
MORDECAI
Mordecai was a Jew who lived in the Persian capital and whose cousin Esther became queen to the Persian Emperor (Esther 2:5-7,17). Between them, Mordecai and Esther saved the Jewish people from threatened destruction, and Mordecai later became the Emperor’s chief minister (Esther 10:3). (For details see ESTHER.)
MOSES
The life of Moses divides conveniently into three periods of forty years each. The first period ended with his flight from Egypt to Midian (Acts 7:23-29), the second with his return from Midian to liberate his people from Egyptian power (Acts 7:30-36; Exod 7:7), and the third with his death just before Israel entered Canaan (Deut 34:7). As the leader God chose to establish Israel as a nation, Moses had absolute rule over Israel. God spoke to the people through him (Exod 3:10-12; 24:12; 25:22). Moses’ position was unique. No other person of his time, and no leader after him, had the face-to-face relationship with God that Moses had (Exod 24:1-2; 33:11; Num 12:6-8; Deut 34:10).
Relations with Egypt
Moses was the third child of Amram and Jochabed, and belonged to the tribe of Levi. His older sister was Miriam and his older brother Aaron (Exod 6:20; 1 Chron 6:1-3). Through a series of remarkable events, the young child Moses was adopted into the Egyptian royal family but grew up under the influence of his godly Israelite mother (Exod 2:8-10; Heb 11:23). From his mother he learnt about the true and living God who had chosen Israel as his people, and from the Egyptians he received the best secular education available (Acts 7:22). By the time he was forty, Moses was convinced God had chosen him to rescue Israel from Egypt. But his rash killing of an Egyptian slave-driver showed he was not yet ready for the job. To save his life he fled from Egypt to live among the Midianites, a nomadic people who inhabited a barren region that spread from the Sinai Peninsular around the Gulf of Aqabah into the western part of the Arabian Desert. By such a decisive act, Moses demonstrated his total rejection of his Egyptian status (Exod 2:11-15; Acts 7:23-29; Heb 11:24-25). In Midian Moses lived with a local chief named Jethro (or Reuel), from whom he probably learnt much about desert life and tribal administration.
He married one of Jethro’s daughters, and from her had two sons (Exod 2:16-22; 18:1-3). During Moses’ forty years in Midian, Israel’s sufferings in Egypt increased. God’s time to deliver Israel from bondage had now come, and the person he would use as the deliverer was Moses (Exod 2:23- 25; 3:1-12). Because the Israelites had only a vague understanding of God, Moses had to explain to them the character of this one who would be their redeemer. He, the Eternal One, would prove himself able to meet every need of his people, but they had to learn to trust in him (Exod 3:13-15; 6:2-8; see YAHWEH). In response to Moses’ complaint that the Israelites would not believe him, God gave him three signs (Exod 4:1-9,30). In response to his excuse that he was not a good speaker, God gave him Aaron as a spokesman (Exod 4:10-16; 7:1-2). Moses then returned to Egypt, where the elders of Israel welcomed him (Exod 4:20,29,31). God warned Moses that his job would be difficult and that Pharaoh would not listen to his pleas for freedom for the Israelites (Exod 4:21-23). Pharaoh’s response to Moses’ initial meeting was to increase the Israelites’ suffering, with the result that they turned bitterly against Moses (Exod 5:1-21). God gave Moses further assurance that Pharaoh would be defeated, but when Moses told the people, they were too disheartened to listen (Exod 6:1,9). Moses again put his request to Pharaoh, and again Pharaoh refused (Exod 7:1-13). God therefore worked through Moses and Aaron to send a series of plagues upon Egypt, resulting in the overthrow of Egypt and the release of Israel (Exod 7:14-15:21; see PHARAOH; PLAGUE).
Israel’s lawgiver
Having crossed the Red Sea, the Israelites headed through the semi-barren countryside for Mt Sinai. They complained constantly, sometimes because they had no water (Exod 15:23-25; 17:2-3), other times because they had no food (Exod 16:2-3). In each case God enabled Moses to satisfy their needs. He also answered Moses’ prayer in giving victory over some raiding Amalekites (Exod 17:8- 13). When Jethro met Moses on the journey, he quickly saw that the heavy burden of leading the people was wearing Moses out. People brought even their minor personal disputes to Moses for his judgment (Exod 18:13-18). Jethro suggested that Moses share the load by appointing others to judge lesser cases, leaving Moses to judge only the more difficult ones. Moses heeded Jethro’s advice, and so took the first steps in organizing the administration of Israel (Exod 18:19-27). Jethro returned home, and the Israelites moved on to Mt Sinai. They remained there for the next year (Exod 19:1; Num 10:11), during which God prepared them for the life that lay ahead for them as an independent nation under his lordship. There now had to be some recognized standard for the recently appointed officials to administer. God therefore gave the basic principles of the law in the form of ten simple commandments (Exod 20:1-17), which were probably the principles Moses had been using as his standard all the time. The miscellaneous laws collected in the remainder of Exodus, and in the books of Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy, were based on these principles. As Moses judged the cases brought before him, the people accepted his decisions as having the authority of God. Many of these decisions became the basis of laws for the future (Exod 18:16; Num 15:32-40; 27:5-11; see LAW).
Mediator of the covenant
God then formally established his covenant with Israel in a ceremony at Mt Sinai. Moses, who acted as the mediator or go-between, announced God’s covenant commands to the people, and the people declared their willingness to obey. Moses sealed the covenant by blood, sprinkling half of it on the people and half of it against the altar (representing God) (Exod 24:3-8; see COVENANT). He took the leaders of the people with him up into the mountain, where they saw the glory of God, but Moses alone entered God’s presence. He remained there about six weeks and received God’s directions for the construction of the tabernacle and the institution of the priesthood (Exod 24:9-18; 25:40). While Moses was absent on the mountain, the Israelites built an idol. God told Moses he would destroy the nation and build it afresh, using Moses as the new ‘father’. Moses, thinking more of God’s glory than his own fame, successfully pleaded with God not to destroy the people (Exod 32:11-14). Nevertheless, God could not ignore Israel’s sin. When he allowed a limited judgment to fall upon the people, Moses again pleaded for them, even offering to die on their behalf (Exod 32:30-34). In response to God’s statement that he would not go to Canaan with such a rebellious people, Moses again pleaded for them. Once more God answered Moses’ prayer, this time promising Moses his presence (Exod 33:1-3,12-16). This encouraged Moses to ask even more. He asked for a greater understanding of the nature of God, and God replied by revealing to him more of his character and glory (Exod 33:17-23). This revelation took place when Moses returned to the mountain to receive fresh copies of the law (Exod 34:1-9). His face became so dazzling because of his meeting with God that on certain occasions he had to cover it with a cloth (Exod 34:28-35; 2 Cor 3:7-18).
A patient leader
Moses’ gracious response to Israel’s disgraceful behaviour, both on the journey from Egypt and at Mt Sinai, showed that although he was a strong and decisive leader, he was not hot-headed or self-assertive. He was a humble man (Num 12:3), whose patience was demonstrated constantly. After the fatal judgment on Aaron’s rebellious sons Nadab and Abihu (Num 10:1-2), the other two sons thought it better to burn their portion of the sacrifice in sorrow than to eat it. Their action was wrong, but it came from good motives. Moses, with understanding and sympathy, saw this and so said no more (Lev 10:16-20). In a later case of wilful blasphemy, and in another of deliberate disobedience to God’s law, Moses refused to act hastily. In both cases he waited for God to show him how to deal with the offenders (Lev 24:12; Num 15:34). When Moses married a Cushite woman (his first wife had apparently died), Miriam and Aaron criticized him. The real reason for their attack, however, was their jealousy of Moses’ leadership.
Though Moses made no effort to defend himself, God rebuked Miriam and Aaron. Again Moses showed his forgiving spirit by asking God’s mercy on his critics (Num 12:1-13). His generous nature was shown also on a previous occasion, when Joshua had wanted to protect Moses’ status as a prophet by stopping others from prophesying. Moses replied that he wished all God’s people were prophets (Num 11:27-29). After the people’s refusal to accept Joshua and Caleb’s report and move ahead into Canaan, God again threatened to destroy the nation and rebuild it through Moses. Once more Moses prayed earnestly that God would forgive the people (Num 14:11-19). Although God did not destroy the people, he refused to allow the unbelieving adult generation to enter Canaan. Israel would therefore remain in the wilderness forty years, till the former generation had passed away and a new had grown up to replace it. Only then would Israel enter the promised land (Num 14:26-35). Some time later there was a widespread rebellion against Moses and Aaron, headed by Korah, Dathan and Abiram. As usual Moses left the matter with God rather than take action to defend himself (Num 16:4-5). In righteous anger God threatened the rebellious nation with destruction, but again Moses prayed for them (Num 16:20-24,44-48). The one occasion on which Moses lost his temper with the people was at Meribah. By his rash words and disobedient actions he misrepresented God before the people and brought God’s judgment upon himself. Because of his position of leadership, the cost of his failure was high. God punished him by not allowing him to enter Canaan (Num 20:10-13; Ps 106:32-33).
Later events
About forty years after Israel left Egypt, the new generation prepared to enter Canaan. During a long detour that Israel was forced to make around Edom, Aaron died (Num 20:21-29). As the people of Israel moved north, they conquered large areas of good land east of Jordan, with the result that two and a half tribes asked to settle there instead of in Canaan. This at first worried Moses, because it seemed they were repeating the unbelief of their forefathers. He showed that he was fair and reasonable by agreeing to the two and a half tribes’ proposal to help conquer Canaan first and then return to settle east (Num 32:6-8,20- 23). When sexual immorality and foreign religious practices threatened Israel at this time, Moses took decisive action (Num 31:1-54). He also conducted a census, for the double purpose of determining Israel’s military strength for the attack on Canaan and making arrangements for the division of the land (Num 26:1-2,54-56). Moses showed no bitterness at being refused entry into the land, but was concerned only that Israel have a godly leader (Num 27:12-17; cf. Deut 3:23-28).
That leader was to be Joshua, though Joshua would not have the absolute authority that Moses had. Civil and religious leadership were to be separated. Joshua would not, like Moses, speak with God face to face, but would receive God’s instructions through the high priest (Num 27:18-21; cf. Deut 31:7-8,14,23; 34:9-12). During the remaining weeks before he died, Moses repeated the law for the sake of the new generation that had grown up since the first giving of the law at Sinai. This teaching, recorded in the book of Deuteronomy, was in the style of the preacher rather than the lawgiver. It was an exposition of the law rather than a straight repetition (Deut 10:12-22; see DEUTERONOMY). Moses was a prophet, one who brought God’s message to the people of his time, and this was well demonstrated in his final messages to his people (Deut 18:18; cf. 6:1-9). He wanted the people to remind themselves constantly of the law’s requirements by memorizing a song he had written for them (Deut 31:30; 32:44-46) and by conducting periodic readings of the law (Deut 31:10-12). Shortly before he died, Moses announced his prophetic blessings on the various tribes of Israel (Deut 33:1-29). According to the permission God had given him earlier, Moses then climbed the peak (Pisgah) of Mt Nebo in the Abarim Range to view the magnificent land his people were to possess. He died at the age of 120 and was buried in the territory east of Jordan (Deut 34:1-8).
Moses’ writings
Throughout his time as Israel’s leader, Moses was busy as a writer. When Israel escaped from Egypt, he wrote a song celebrating the overthrow of the enemy at the Red Sea (Exod 15:1), and he recorded Israel’s subsequent conflict with Amalek (Exod 17:14). In the initial covenant ceremony at Sinai, he wrote God’s commandments in a book (Exod 24:4), and added further writings when the covenant was renewed a few weeks later (Exod 34:27). He kept a full record of the stages of Israel’s journey from Egypt to Canaan (Num 33:1-2). When he repeated and expounded the law for the new generation that was about to enter Canaan, Moses recorded his teaching in a book, which was then kept safely inside the tabernacle (Deut 31:9,24- 25). At this time he also wrote a song (Deut 31:22,30). Another song credited to him has been collected in the book of Psalms (Ps 90). From the time of Israel’s settlement in Canaan, people regarded Moses as the writer of the law (Josh 8:31; 2 Chron 34:14; Neh 8:1; Mark 12:19,26). Over the years it became common practice to use the name ‘Moses’ as a title for Israel’s law in general (Luke 5:14; Acts 6:11,13; 15:1), and as an overall title for the first five books of the Bible (Luke 16:31; 24:27; John 5:46-47; Acts 15:21; 26:22; 28:23; see PENTATEUCH). In fact, Moses symbolized all that the old covenant represented in the purposes of God. His greatness in Israel was unchallenged. Great though Moses was, he was but a servant in God’s vast household. He fulfilled his duty by helping to prepare the way for one who was God’s Son and the world’s Saviour (Mark 9:4-8; Heb 3:2-6).
MUSIC
In the early days of the human race, music was one of the first expressions of artistic and cultural development (Gen 4:21). It soon became widely used, along with singing and dancing, to celebrate special occasions, whether private or public, domestic or national, secular or sacred (Gen 31:27; Exod 15:20-21; 2 Sam 6:14-15; 2 Chron 20:28- 29; Ps 92:1-3; 144:9; Isa 5:12; Amos 6:5; Dan 3:4-5; see also DANCING; SINGING). At other times people played or listened to music purely for relaxation or enjoyment (1 Sam 16:16-17,23; 18:10; Job 21:11-12; Ezek 26:13; 33:31-32; Lam 5:14; Rev 18:22).
Music also accompanied mourning and singing at funerals (Matt 9:23; Luke 7:32; see FUNERAL). Hebrew musical instruments were of three kinds – stringed, wind and percussion. Chief among the stringed instruments were the harp (1 Sam 10:5; 2 Sam 6:5; 1 Kings 10:12; Isa 5:12) and the lyre (Gen 4:21; 31:27; 1 Sam 10:5; 16:23; 2 Sam 6:5). The main wind instruments were the flute (Isa 5:12; Jer 48:36; Matt 9:23), the pipe (Gen 4:21; 1 Kings 1:40; Job 21:12; Matt 11:17), the horn (2 Sam 6:15) and the trumpet (Num 10:2; 31:6; Amos 3:6; Matt 24:31). Percussion instruments included cymbals (2 Sam 6:5; Ps 150:4; 1 Cor 13:1), tambourines (Gen 31:27; 1 Sam 10:5; 2 Sam 6:5; Job 21:12) and timbrels (Exod 15:20; Judg 11:34; Ps 150:4). In the music that David organized for Israel’s temple worship, the main instruments were harps, lyres and cymbals (1 Chron 15:16,19-21; 16:5).
MYSIA
The region known as Mysia was originally occupied by one of the independent states of Asia Minor. It was taken over by the Greeks and later by the Romans, and incorporated into the Roman province of Asia. Politically Mysia no longer existed in New Testament times, but people still used the old name to refer to the north-west region of Asia Minor. Towns of this region that are mentioned in the New Testament are Troas, Assos and Adramyttium (Acts 16:6-11; 20:6,13-14; 27:2; for map see ASIA).
MYSTERY
In New Testament usage, a mystery is not a puzzle or a secret that leaves people in ignorance, but a truth that God reveals. It usually refers to something that people normally would not know, but that God in his grace makes known to them (Eph 3:4-5; Col 1:26; Rev 17:7). The truths concerning salvation through Jesus Christ are mysteries in this sense. People could not work them out by themselves, but God who planned salvation from eternity reveals them (Rom 16:25-26; 1 Tim 3:9,16). Jesus taught his disciples that there was a mystery concerning the kingdom of God (Matt 13:11).
He revealed that God has already established his kingdom in the world, even though the world is still under the power of Satan. God does not yet force people to submit to the kingdom’s authority. Consequently, those who are not in the kingdom live in the world alongside those who are. The decisive separation will take place on the day of judgment (Matt 13:24-30,36-43; see KINGDOM OF GOD). Paul’s preaching was a revelation of the mystery of the gospel and the mystery of Christ (Eph 6:19; Col 2:2; 4:3). He showed that God’s plan of salvation through the gospel was to unite Jewish and Gentile believers in one body through Jesus Christ. All share equally in the full blessings of God, without any distinction on the basis of nationality (Eph 3:3-6; Col 1:26-27; cf. Rom 3:21-24). This unified body is a picture, a foretaste and a guarantee of the unity that there will be throughout the universe when God, through Christ, finally removes all rebellion and disharmony (Eph 1:9-10; 3:9-10; cf. 1 Cor 15:25; see GOSPEL). A further mystery reveals how believers can participate in the blessings of this coming glorious age. God will remove all the effects of sin and death from his people for ever, through the resurrection of the dead and the transformation of all believers to a new state of existence in spiritual, imperishable bodies (1 Cor 15:51-53; see RESURRECTION).