RABBAH
To the east of the Jordan River was the land of the Ammonites, whose capital city was Rabbah, or Rabbah-ammon. Though at times conquered, the city was repeatedly rebuilt. It is known today as Amman, capital of the present-day nation of Jordan (Deut 3:11; Jer 49:1-2; Ezek 21:20; Amos 1:13-14). Most references to Rabbah in the Bible are related to conflicts between Ammon and Israel-Judah (e.g. 2 Sam 11:1; 12:26-31). (For map and other details see AMMON.)
RABBI
‘Rabbi’ was a Hebrew word meaning ‘my teacher’ or ‘my master’. Pupils used the word when addressing their teachers (Matt 23:7; Mark 9:5; John 1:38; 3:25-26), and it was a common title that Jesus’ disciples used in addressing him (Matt 26:25; John 6:25; 9:2; 13:13-14; 20:16). People in general used the word as a title of respect for prominent teachers in the community (Luke 3:12; 10:25; John 1:49; 3:2). The word also had a more specialized meaning as a formal title for the Jewish teachers of the law known as scribes (cf. Luke 2:46; Matt 23:7; Acts 5:34; 22:3; see SCRIBES).
RACE
In spite of the many ethnic groups in the world, there is one race that includes them all, the human race. There is a basic unity to the human race, for all people share a common origin (Acts 17:26; Rom 5:12; 1 Cor 15:47-48). There is also a basic equality, for all people exist in the image of God (Gen 1:27; see IMAGE). People are not favoured with God’s salvation on account of their race. All have sinned and are under the judgment of God, but all can be saved through accepting the salvation that God in his grace offers (Rom 2:9-10; 3:19,23-24). From the time of humankind’s earliest rebellion, God worked in human history to produce one who would be a saviour for all.
The fact that this saviour was himself a human being meant that he had to come from one of the world’s many races and nations. God’s choice of Israel as his people was specifically for the purpose of producing this saviour (Luke 2:10-11,32; Rom 9:4-5; cf. Gen 12:1-3; see ELECTION; COVENANT). Through being God’s channel of blessing to the world, Israelites enjoyed certain blessings, but that did not mean that they automatically received salvation from the penalty of sin. Israelites, whether in Old or New Testament times, had to repent and believe, the same as people of other races, if they were to be saved. Salvation is solely by God’s grace, and people accept it by faith (Isa 1:16-20; Luke 3:6-8; 11:32; John 8:39,44; Rom 9:30-32; Eph 2:8; see REMNANT). Since all are saved on the same basis, there can be no inequality in the church. Believers of all races are united in one body (Gal 3:28; Eph 2:13-16; see FOREIGNER; GENTILE). God intends his church to be a showpiece to the world. Through the union of people of different races in one body, the church demonstrates the unity that God has planned for the whole universe (Eph 1:9-10; 3:6-10).
RACHEL
When Jacob went to Paddan-aram to find a wife, he met and fell in love with Rachel, the younger daughter of his uncle, Laban. Jacob worked seven years for Laban as payment for Rachel, but when the wedding day came, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him the older daughter, Leah, instead. After the wedding festivities he gave Rachel also to Jacob, but made Jacob work for him an extra seven years as payment for her. Laban also gave each of the two daughters a slave-girl as a wedding gift (Gen 29:1-30). While Leah produced several sons for Jacob, Rachel remained childless. She then gave her maid to Jacob, so that the maid might bear sons whom Rachel could adopt as her own.
Leah did likewise with her maid, after which she produced more sons of her own. Jacob already had ten sons and a daughter by the time Rachel gave birth to her first son, Joseph (Gen 29:31-30:24). Although Laban had enriched himself through his daughters’ bride price (Jacob’s years of hard work), he now planned to exclude them from the inheritance, in favour of his sons. This made Rachel so angry that when Jacob and his family left Paddan-aram for Canaan, she took her father’s idols with her. According to local custom, these gave her some claim to his inheritance (Gen 31:1-21). Laban never regained his idols, but Jacob made sure that Rachel did not keep them once the family entered Canaan (Gen 31:34-35; 35:1-4). Rachel died when giving birth to Benjamin, the only son of Jacob born in Canaan. She was buried near Ramah, on the road from Bethel to Bethlehem (Gen 35:16-20; 1 Sam 10:2; Jer 31:15). Centuries later, Jeremiah imagined the dead Rachel mourning from her tomb as her descendants were led past on their way to captivity in a foreign land (Jer 31:15). She might likewise have mourned over the slaughter of the Jewish babies by Herod (Matt 2:16-18).
RAHAB
The name Rahab appears in English versions of the Bible as belonging to a woman who features in the book of Joshua, and to a mythical sea monster that features in the poetical books. But in the Hebrew Bible the two do not share the same name. There is a difference in spelling.
A woman in Jericho
Before Joshua opened his attack on Canaan, he sent two men to spy out the first city they would meet, Jericho. In Jericho the men met Rahab, a prostitute whose house was attached to the city wall. Rahab had heard sufficient of Israel’s God to fear his power, but she believed in his mercy to save her. She protected the spies from the local authorities, and in return asked protection for herself and her family when the Israelites attacked Jericho (Josh 2:1-14; Heb 11:31). Rahab further demonstrated her faith by being obedient to the instructions that the spies gave her. She protected the spies as requested, and did as they had told her in preparation for Israel’s attack. As a result the Israelites preserved her and her family when Jericho fell, and accepted them into Israel as part of the nation (Josh 2:15-24; 6:17,22-25; James 2:25). If this Rahab is the person of that name who married Salmon, she was mother of Boaz and an ancestor of Jesus the Messiah (Matt 1:1,5-6).
A mythical sea monster
Rahab the mythical sea monster was considered by people of the Middle East to symbolize the forces of chaos over which God had victory in creating an orderly world (Job 9:13; 26:12; 38:8-11). Poets at times wrote about God’s overthrow of Egypt in the Red Sea as if it were the overthrow of the sea monster Rahab (Ps 89:9-10; Isa 51:9-10). From this there developed the poetical usage of ‘Rahab’ as another name for Egypt (Ps 87:4; Isa 30:7).
RAMESES
(RA’AMSES) One reason why the Israelites of Moses’ time were slaves in Egypt was that the Pharaoh wanted a cheap work-force to carry out his spectacular building programs. Among the cities that the Israelites built was Rameses (or Ra’amses), where the buildings included a magnificent palace, large storehouses and defence fortifications (Exod 1:8-11). Rameses was probably the former Hyksos capital, Avaris, rebuilt. (For map and other details see EGYPT.) Rameses was located in that part of the Nile Delta where the family of Jacob had originally settled (Gen 47:11). This was the region from which Jacob’s multitude of descendants set out on their flight from Egypt over four hundred years later (in 1280 BC; Exod 12:37). Rameses was also apparently known as Zoan (Ps 78:12,43), which from 1085 to 660 BC was the capital of Egypt (Isa 19:11,13; 30:4; Ezek 30:14).
RAMOTH-GILEAD
As its name indicates, Ramoth-gilead was in the territory of Gilead, east of the Jordan River. It was in the region of the ill-defined border between the tribes of East Manasseh and Gad, and was one of the three cities of refuge in Israel’s trans-Jordan territory (Josh 20:8-9). (For maps and other details see CITY OF REFUGE; GILEAD.) Ramoth-gilead’s chief importance was as a defence outpost on the nation’s eastern frontier. Many battles were fought there, and the town often fell to invading armies (1 Kings 22:1-40; 2 Kings 8:28- 9:16). It was among the first places to fall when Assyria conquered Israel and carried the people into captivity (2 Kings 15:29).
RANSOM
See REDEMPTION.
REBEKAH
As the wife of Isaac, Rebekah had an important part in God’s development of a people for himself according to the promise he gave to Abraham (Gen 22:15-18; 24:3-4,67). Isaac and Rebekah were without children for twenty years, but then Rebekah gave birth to twin sons, Esau and Jacob (Gen 25:20- 26). Though God had told her that the covenant would be fulfilled through the younger son rather than the older (Gen 25:23; Rom 9:10-13), she had no right to work out a scheme to deceive Isaac. She was determined that nothing would prevent Jacob from receiving the blessing (Gen 27:6-29). When Esau plotted to kill Jacob, Rebekah thought out another scheme, this time to protect Jacob. She decided to send him north to her brother in Paddan-aram. Again she deceived Isaac, this time by persuading him that the reason Jacob should go north was to find a wife among her people (Gen 27:41- 28:5). There is no record that Rebekah ever saw her favourite son again. Upon her death, she was buried in the burial ground that Abraham had bought for his family (Gen 49:31).
RECONCILIATION
Through sin the human race has made itself the enemy of God. People are separated from God, under the wrath of God and unable to have fellowship with God (Rom 1:18; 8:7-8; Eph 2:3; Col 1:21). They need to be reconciled to God; that is, they need to be brought back from a state of hostility to a state of peace; from being an enemy to being a friend. The only way that reconciliation can occur is through the removal of the cause of hostility. Christ did this when he died on the cross; he bore sin on behalf of sinners. God’s holy wrath against sin was satisfied, but only at great cost to himself.
God was in Christ, reconciling sinners to himself. Because of all he has done through Christ’s death, God can in his love accept repentant sinners back to himself (Rom 5:6-9; 2 Cor 5:18-19,21; see PROPITIATION). Once God has dealt with sin according to his standards of justice and holiness, he can reconcile guilty sinners. Reconciliation is God’s work; it is not something sinners themselves can accomplish. The fault is on their side, but the removal of hostility is entirely the work of God (2 Cor 5:18-19). People are brought into a right relationship with God only through the outworking of God’s grace in the death of Jesus Christ (Rom 5:10-11; Eph 2:12-16; Col 1:20,22). They receive the benefits of this reconciliation when they respond to God in faith and repentance (Rom 5:1; 2 Cor 5:20). Peace now replaces hostility (Eph 2:3,14-17).
This peace is more than the absence of hostility; it is a state of spiritual well-being brought about through a right relationship with God. It is a peace that comes from God through Christ’s conquest of sin, and it enables believers to be confident and calm in a world still hostile to God (John 14:27; Rom 5:1; 8:6; 16:20; Phil 4:7,9; see PEACE). Having experienced the gracious work of God’s reconciliation, believers should preach it to others, so that others might be reconciled to God (2 Cor 5:18). In addition they should desire that people be reconciled to each other. Christ’s work destroys traditional hostilities in human relations and brings peace (Eph 2:14-16). Whether within the community of believers or outside it, Christians should try to live peaceably with others (Matt 5:23-26; Rom 12:18-21; 2 Cor 6:11-13), and should encourage the same attitude in others (Matt 5:9). They should also work towards the reconciliation of people in general to the world of nature in which they live. Such a reconciliation is part of the purpose for which Christ died (Rom 8:19-23; Col 1:16,20; see NATURE).
RED SEA
When the Bible speaks of the Red Sea, it refers only to the northern part where the sea divides into two arms, between which lies the Sinai Peninsular. The western arm is the Gulf of Suez (Num 33:10) and the eastern arm the Gulf of Aqabah (Num 14:25; 21:4; 1 Kings 9:26; see also EZION-GEBER). The Red Sea through which the people of Israel passed during their miraculous escape from Egypt was literally the ‘Sea of Reeds’. This was a large shallow expanse of water north of the Gulf of Suez, somewhere near the line of the present-day Suez Canal (Exod 13:18). God saved the Israelites by sending gale force winds that blew all night and dried up enough of the water to form a passage for his people to cross to the other side (Exod 14:21-22). Just before daybreak, when all the Israelites had crossed over, the Egyptians attempted to follow. By then the wind had dropped and the sea waters began to return to normal, bringing first confusion, then panic, and finally destruction to the Egyptian chariot force (Exod 14:24-28; 15:4).
REDEMPTION
In Bible days a slave could be set free from bondage by the payment of a price, often called the ransom. The whole affair was known as the redemption of the slave (Lev 25:47-48). (The words ‘redeem’ and ‘ransom’ are related to the same root in the original languages.) The Bible speaks of redemption both literally (concerning everyday affairs) and pictorially (concerning what God has done for his people) (Ps 77:15; Titus 2:14).
In the Old Testament
Under Israelite law, both people and things could be redeemed. In family matters, all Israelites had to redeem their firstborn. Since God had preserved Israel’s firstborn during the Passover judgment, they rightly belonged to him. Therefore, the parents had to redeem their firstborn by a payment of money to the sanctuary (Exod 13:2,13; Num. 18:15-16; see FIRSTBORN). In matters of property, if people became poor and sold land they had inherited from ancestors, either they or close relatives had to buy the land back (redeem it) as soon as possible (Lev 25:25; Ruth 4:3-6; see SABBATICAL YEAR). If Israelites vowed to give God their children, animals, houses or land, they could redeem those things, again by a payment of money to the sanctuary (Lev 27:1-25; see VOWS). If a farmer was under the death sentence because his ox had killed someone, his relatives could redeem him (since the death was accidental) by a payment of money to the dead person’s relatives (Exod 21:28-30). In all these cases there was the idea of release by the payment of a price. Often God is said to have redeemed Israel; that is, to have delivered Israel from the power of its enemies (Jer 31:11; Micah 4:10). The greatest of these acts of redemption was at the time of the exodus, when God delivered Israel from captivity in Egypt (Exod 6:6; 15:13; Ps 106:9-10; see EXODUS). Centuries later, after Israel (Judah) had been taken captive to Babylon, there was a ‘second exodus’, when God again redeemed his people from bondage (Isa 44:22-23; 48:20). In these acts of redemption of Israel there is no suggestion that God paid anything to the enemy nations, as if he was under some obligation to them. Nevertheless, there is the suggestion that redemption cost God something; for he had to use his mighty power in acts of judgment to save his people (Exod 32:11; Deut 4:37-38; 9:26,29; Isa 45:13; 52:3; 63:9).
In the New Testament
Besides being an everyday practice, redemption was a fitting picture of God’s activity in saving sinners. Those who sin are slaves of sin and under the sentence of death, and have no way of releasing themselves from bondage (John 8:34; Rom 6:17,23; 1 John 5:19; cf. Ps 130:8). Jesus Christ came to give his life as a ransom for those under this sentence of death. His death brought forgiveness of sins and so released them from sin’s bondage (Matt 20:28; Rom 3:24-25; Gal 3:13; Eph 1:7; Col 1:14; 1 Tim 2:6; Rev 1:5). Sinners are therefore redeemed by the blood of Christ. The ransom price he paid for them was his life laid down in sacrifice (Heb 9:12; 1 Peter 1:18-19; Rev 5:9). They are freed from the power of sin in their lives now (Heb 2:14-15), and will experience the fulness of their redemption when their bodies also are freed from the power of sin at Christ’s return. That event will bring about not only the final redemption for humankind but also the release of the world of nature from sin’s corrupting power (Luke 21:28; Rom 8:21-23; Eph 4:30). Paul at times makes a slightly different use of the illustration of slavery and redemption to remind Christians of their present responsibilities. When people are redeemed from the bondage of sin and the curse of the law, they come into a new life of liberty as the sons of God. Sin no longer has power over them, and they must show this to be true by the way they live (Rom 8:2; Gal 3:13-14; 4:4-7; cf. Titus 2:14). Yet, though free from sin, Christians are not free to do as they like. Because they have been bought with a price, they are now, in a sense, slaves of God. They must therefore be obedient to him, their new master (Rom 6:16-18; 1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:22-23; see SERVANT; SLAVE).
REFINE
Metal-workers were common in the ancient world, and used their skills in a variety of ways (Gen 4:22; Exod 31:4; Judg 17:4; Isa 41:7; 44:12; 54:16). If they wanted to obtain pure metals from the raw materials they worked with, they first of all had to refine the metals. This was particularly so in the case of precious metals such as silver and gold (1 Chron 28:18; Mal 3:2-3). The metal was placed in a fire of intense heat so that, as the metal melted, impurities could be removed. The refining process tested and purified the metal. It was a vivid picture of the way God tests and purifies his people through the sufferings and hardships they experience (Ps 66:10; Prov 17:3; Isa 1:25; 48:10; 1 Peter 1:7; see TESTING).
REGENERATION
All people are sinners; therefore all are spiritually dead and unable to give themselves spiritual life. They are cut off from God, with no hope of salvation through anything they might plan or do. God, however, can save them from this hopeless condition by forgiving their sins, giving them new life and restoring them to a right relationship with himself. This experience is called the new birth, or regeneration, and is the work of the Spirit of God within the individual. It takes place when people humbly submit to Jesus Christ and trust him for forgiveness, salvation and life (John 1:12-13; 3:3-6; Eph 2:1,5; Titus 3:5).
To be regenerated means, in other words, to be born anew, to be spiritually re-created. This is not something people themselves can do. It is entirely the work of the merciful and sovereign God (John 1:13; 3:5; Titus 3:3-7; James 1:18; 1 Peter 1:23; cf. Ps 51:10; Ezek 11:19). Without it sinners remain in their hopeless state and are incapable of experiencing spiritual life (John 3:5-6). Through it they become children of God and enter his kingdom (John 1:12-13; 3:3,5; see also ADOPTION). Regenerated people are new people (2 Cor 5:17; 1 Peter 2:2; cf. Gal 6:15). They have new life inwardly, characterized by renewed minds that govern all his thinking and attitudes (Rom 12:2; Eph 4:23- 24; cf. Ezek 36:26-27; Jer 31:33). They also have new life outwardly, characterized by loving behaviour towards others, hatred of sin and victory over the world’s temptations (Col 3:10,12-13; 1 John 2:29; 4:7; 5:4,18; cf. 1 Cor 5:7-8).
REHOBOAM
Upon the death of Solomon, Rehoboam his son became king of Israel (930 BC). He inherited the judgment that God had previously prepared for the throne of Solomon (1 Kings 11:11-13). Aware that the northern tribes were dissatisfied with the Jerusalem government, Rehoboam tried to hold their allegiance by going north to Shechem for his coronation ceremony (1 Kings 12:1). He also decided to take a firm stand against any tendency to weaken Jerusalem’s control of the north. But his efforts were in vain, with the result that the ten northern tribes broke away from David’s dynasty and formed their own kingdom under Jeroboam (1 Kings 12:2-20).
The Davidic kingdom, though still centred on Jerusalem, was reduced to the tribe of Judah and one neighbouring tribe. Though Rehoboam thought of sending his army to force his rule upon the north, he changed his mind when a prophet told him that the division was a judgment sent by God (1 Kings 12:21-24). For three years Rehoboam followed the way of God faithfully. This was partly because of the good influence of a large number of priests and Levites who had fled from the north to Jerusalem rather than cooperate with Jeroboam’s idolatry (2 Chron 11:13-17). During this time he ruled well, improving the nation’s defences and training his sons to be administrators (2 Chron 11:5-12,23). As Rehoboam’s strength increased, so did his pride. Soon he tried to show himself independent of God by copying the Canaanite religions (1 Kings 14:21-24; 2 Chron 12:1,14). God punished him by allowing Egypt to invade and plunder the land. Only a last minute confession of sin from Rehoboam and his governors saved Judah from destruction (2 Chron 12:2-13).
REMNANT
Although the nation Israel as a whole was God’s people, only a minority of the people ever truly believed. While the majority carried out their rituals without any attitude of genuine repentance or faith, there were always the few who were truly devoted to God. This faithful minority is consistently referred to as the remnant. Israel may have been God’s people in the national sense, but the remnant were God’s people in the spiritual sense. They were the true Israel (Rom 9:6-7,27).
When God’s people of Old Testament times rebelled against him, the prophets announced God’s judgment upon them. Time and again the prophets declared that God had rejected his unfaithful people but would preserve the faithful remnant. One task of the prophets was to build up and encourage the remnant (1 Kings 19:18; Isa 1:9; 8:16-19; 10:20-23; 28:5; Jer 15:19-21). The prophets saw that events were heading towards a judgment far greater than anything the people had met previously.
The nation would be conquered, Jerusalem destroyed and the people taken into captivity. But God would still preserve a remnant, so that after a time in captivity, some would return to Jerusalem to rebuild the temple, the city and the nation (Ezra 9:13-15; Isa 11:11-12,16; Micah 2:12). After the return, the people as a whole again became unfaithful to God, but there was always a remnant of faithful believers. From this remnant the Messiah eventually came (Micah 5:2-3,7-8; Zech 8:11-12; Mal 3:16-18; Matt 1:18-21; Luke 1:5-7; 2:25-38). Still the majority of Israel rebelled against God, this time rejecting the Messiah. But a remnant received him. This faithful minority of old Israel became the nucleus of the new people of God, the Christian church (Luke 24:44-49; John 20:20-22; Acts 1:13-15; 2:1-4). Within a few years the church consisted largely of non-Jews. Within it, however, were the believing Jews, the faithful remnant, the spiritual Israelites who believed in Jesus the Messiah and became part of his church (Acts 13:43; 16:1; 17:2-4; 18:8; Rom 2:28-29; 9:6-8; 11:1-5).
REPENTANCE
Repentance is a turning from sin to God (Deut 30:1-2; 2 Chron 6:26-27; 7:14; Neh 1:9; Ps 78:34; Isa 55:7; Jer 8:6; 31:18-19; Ezek 18:21; Mal 3:7; Matt 11:20-21; Luke 15:7; 16:30; Acts 3:19; 8:22; 14:15; 26:19-20; Rev 9:20-21). The open demonstration of this turning to God is sometimes called conversion (Acts 15:3; cf. 26:17-18; 1 Thess 1:9-10). Jesus and the New Testament preachers commanded people to repent, because without repentance there can be no salvation (Matt 3:2; 4:17; Mark 6:12; Luke 5:32; 13:3; 24:47; Acts 2:38; 11:18; 17:30).
It is true that faith is the means by which people receive salvation (Rom 3:22-25; Eph 2:8), but faith that does not involve repentance is not true faith. It is not a faith that leads to salvation. Faith means complete trust in Jesus Christ and his atoning death. It means that people must have total dependence on Christ for their entire salvation (see FAITH). But such trust is impossible so long as they cling to anything of themselves. They cannot rely upon the work of Christ for the forgiveness of sin unless they turn from that sin (Mark 1:15; Acts 11:21; 20:21; 26:18; 1 Thess 1:9).
Because faith involves repentance and repentance involves faith, the Bible in some places speaks of forgiveness as depending on faith (Acts 10:43; 13:38-39), in others as depending on repentance (Luke 24:47; Acts 3:19,26). But the preaching of repentance, like the preaching of faith, must be related to the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Luke 24:46-47). Although it is true that people must exercise faith and repentance if they are to be saved, it is also true that neither faith nor repentance would be possible in the heart of self-centred human beings apart from the gracious work of God. God is the one who brings conviction of sin within people and gives them the readiness to repent and believe (Acts 5:31; 11:18; cf. John 6:65; 16:7-11).
Repentance involves a complete change in the mind and will of the believer. It is more than mere sorrow for sin; it is surrender to God. People may be sorry for their sin because of its consequences, but still have no thought for God. True repentance recognizes the character of sin as deserving God’s judgment, and turns from that sin to ask God’s forgiveness. Sorrow for sin that ignores God leads only to self-pity and despair. Godly sorrow leads to repentance and new life (2 Cor 7:9-10; cf. Job 42:5-6; Ps 51:1-17; Luke 18:13). It proves its genuineness in a complete change of behaviour (Luke 3:8-14; 19:8; 2 Cor 5:17; 1 John 2:4-6). A different usage of the word ‘repent’ is found in the Old Testament, where writers sometimes use it in relation to God. The word simply has to do with a change in God’s dealings with people. It has nothing to do with any divine sin or failure (Gen 6:6; 1 Sam 15:11; Jer 18:7-10; Jonah 3:8-9; cf. Ps 110:4; Jer 4:28).
REPHAIM
Prior to Israel’s conquest of Canaan, the Rephaim were scattered over a wide area on both sides of the Jordan. They were one of many groups who were to be destroyed when Israel took possession of Canaan (Gen 14:5; 15:20; Deut 2:9-11,19-21). They were of large stature (comparable in size to the Anakim; see ANAK), and were feared by other peoples of the region (Deut 2:10-11,20-21; Josh 12:4). There was a valley west of Jerusalem known as the Valley of Rephaim (Josh 15:8; 2 Sam 5:18).
RESURRECTION
Both Old and New Testaments record examples of ordinary people who died and were brought back to life. In all these cases the kind of life to which they returned was the same kind of life as they had known previously. They experienced a normal human existence again, and in due course died a normal human death (1 Kings 17:22; 2 Kings 4:32-35; Luke 7:12-15; 8:49-55; John 11:39-44; Acts 9:37-41). The present article, however, is concerned with a kind of resurrection that is an entirely new order of existence, where death has no more power (Rom 6:9; 1 Cor 15:54; 2 Cor 5:4).
Death and the afterlife
Old Testament believers did not have a clear understanding of eternal life, though they did at times express the hope of a resurrection through which they would have deliverance from the power of death. Likewise they expected a resurrection of the wicked that would be followed by punishment (Ps 49:14-15; Dan 12:2). The reason their understanding was so limited was that Jesus Christ had not yet come. By Christ’s death God broke the power of death and revealed the nature of resurrection life (2 Tim 1:10; Heb 2:14-15). A minority of Jews, the Sadducees, refused to believe in a resurrection of any sort (Matt 22:23). Death is a consequence of sin, and therefore salvation from sin must include victory over death if that salvation is to be complete. It must involve the resurrection of the body to a new and victorious life. Because Jesus’ death and resurrection conquered sin and death, the believer in Jesus can look forward to salvation from sin and death (Rom 4:24-25; 6:8-10; 8:11; 1 Cor 15:26,54-57). God created the human being as a unified whole, and therefore he deals with people in the totality of their being. God does not divide them into physical and spiritual ‘parts’. The human being’s destiny, whether for salvation or damnation, is connected not with death but with the resurrection of the body, after which the person faces final judgment (Dan 12:2; John 5:29; Acts 24:15; see DEATH).
Assurance of Jesus’ resurrection
People’s only basis of hope for a victorious resurrection is the resurrection of Jesus (John 11:25; 1 Cor 15:20-21,45-49). Throughout his ministry Jesus pointed out that he was not only to die but was also to rise from death (Mark 8:31; 9:9,31; John 2:19-21). In spite of Jesus’ clear statements, his disciples often displayed a lack of understanding concerning his coming crucifixion and resurrection. Therefore, when Jesus met with them after his resurrection, he made sure that they knew it was a true bodily resurrection (Luke 24:39-43; John 20:20,27; 1 Cor 15:4-7). Nevertheless, there was something uniquely different about Jesus’ body after his resurrection. On some occasions his physical appearance seems to have changed, for his friends did not at first know who he was (Luke 24:30-31,36-37; John 20:14-15; 21:4,12). On other occasions they recognized him immediately (Matt 28:9; John 20:26-28).
In his resurrection body Jesus was capable of normal physical functions (Luke 24:41-43), but he was also able to appear and disappear as he wished. Although always with his disciples invisibly, he could make himself visible to them if he so desired (Luke 24:31; John 20:19,26; cf. Matt 18:20). The last time he appeared to them, he disappeared in a way that showed that he would appear to them no more, until he returned in power and glory at the end of the age (Acts 1:3,9-11). Jesus’ resurrection changed the apostles from people who were confused and cowardly into people who were assured and courageous (Acts 2:14,36; 4:13,18-20,29-31; 5:27-29). By his resurrection he had conquered death and made salvation sure, and they were witnesses of these things (Luke 24:46-48; Acts 2:24,32; 5:30-32; 10:39-43). The resurrection was therefore a central theme in the apostles’ preaching. It had a significance that people could not ignore (Acts 2:22-24; 4:2,33).
Jesus was alive and, through his disciples, was continuing the work he had begun during the time of his earthly ministry (Acts 3:15-16; 4:10; cf John 14:12-18; see HOLY SPIRIT). Not just the original disciples but all disciples are changed because of Jesus’ resurrection (Eph 2:5-6; Rev1:17-18). Paul, who had not known Jesus during the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry, claimed that the resurrection gave him assurance of eternal life and confidence in his Christian service (Acts 23:6; 25:19; Rom 1:4-5; 1 Cor 9:1; 15:8,14-15; 2 Tim 2:8). The resurrection of Jesus is essential for a person’s entire salvation (1 Cor 15:14,17,19; Rom 4:24-25; 8:10-11). This is one of the truths that believers express when they are baptized (Rom 6:3-4; 10:9; Col 2:12; see BAPTISM). Having become united with Christ through faith, believers share in the resurrection life of Christ. God’s power worked in Christ in raising him to new life, and that same power can work in those who have come into union with Christ. Christians have a new life. They share in Christ’s conquest of sin, and so can claim victory over sin in their everyday lives (Rom 6:6-11,13; 7:4; 8:10; Eph 1:19-20; Phil 3:10).
Future resurrection
Only through Jesus’ resurrection can believers have the assurance of a future resurrection. Through their union with him, they can look forward to an entirely new order of existence where sin and death have no more power (1 Cor 15:20-26,54-57; 1 Peter 1:3-4). This new order of existence will begin at the return of Jesus Christ, when the resurrection of believers will take place (John 6:40,54; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thess 4:16-17). Believers have no way of knowing exactly what the resurrection body will be like. But they know at least that it will be imperishable, glorious and strong, suited to the life of the age to come just as the present body is suited to present earthly life. The link between the future resurrection body and the present physical body may be compared to the link between a plant and the seed from which it grows.
The plant is different from the seed, but in a sense it is the same thing. Similarly, the resurrection body of the believer will be different from the present body, but the believer will still be the same person (John 6:40; 1 Cor 15:35-38,42-44). As Adam’s body was the pattern for the bodies of people in the present life, so Christ’s resurrection body is the pattern for the bodies of believers in the life to come (1 Cor 15:45-49; Phil 3:20-21). The Christian’s expectation at the resurrection is not for the giving of life to a corpse, but for the changing of the whole person into the likeness of Christ (1 John 3:2; cf. Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18). The resurrection of the ungodly is a different matter. Whatever form their resurrection will take, they will not be given spiritual and imperishable bodies. Their resurrection will result not in life, but in judgment, condemnation and eternal destruction (Dan 12:2; Matt 10:28; John 5:29; 1 Cor 15:50; Rev 20:6,12-14; see HELL).
REUBEN
As the eldest of Jacob’s twelve sons, Reuben had the right to the blessing of the firstborn (Gen 35:23; 46:8). At times he showed qualities of character and leadership (Gen 37:21-30; 42:22,37), but he lost the firstborn’s rights because of his immorality with one of his father’s concubines. As a result the civil leadership of Israel went to the tribe of Judah, the religious leadership to Levi, and the double portion of the inheritance to Joseph. This meant that Joseph received the right to have two tribes (which were descended from his sons, Ephraim and Manasseh) (Gen 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chron 5:1-2).
In the time of Moses, certain Reubenites were jealous that a man from the tribe of Levi (Moses), rather than one from the tribe of Reuben, was overall leader in Israel (Num 16:1-3,12-14). God punished their rebellion in a dramatic judgment (Num 16:25-33). When the Israelites conquered and divided Canaan in the time of Joshua, the tribes of Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh settled east of the Jordan River in territory taken from the Amorites (Num 21:11-35; Josh 13:8-12). This entire eastern territory was often called Gilead, though strictly speaking Gilead was only one part of it (Judg 10:8; 20:1).
(For map and other details see GILEAD.) Reuben was the most southern of the eastern tribes, occupying land that originally belonged to Moab (that is, before Moab lost it to the Amorites) (Num 21:26; Josh 13:15-23). (For the physical features of the region see MOAB.) The reason the two and a half tribes asked for this area was that it had good pasture lands and they had large flocks and herds (Num 32:1-5,33). But their situation east of Jordan separated them from the other tribes, and at times led to tension and misunderstanding (Josh 22:1-34; Judg. 5:16-17). Further difficulties arose for the eastern tribes because their position left them more open to attack than the western tribes (1 Kings 10:32-33). At the time of Israel’s collapse several hundred years later, the eastern tribes were among the first to be taken into captivity (2 Kings 15:29).
REVELATION
Since God is supreme and sovereign, answerable to no one, he has no need to make himself known to mere humans. Yet in his grace he has chosen to do so, and people are responsible to him concerning what they learn from him (Deut 29:29). The activity of God in making himself and his truth known is called revelation.
Revelation through nature and conscience
God has given humankind a general revelation of himself through nature. The created world tells people everywhere something of the sovereign power, glory and love of God (Ps 19:1-4; 104:1-32; Acts 14:17; 17:26-27; Rom 1:19-20). Many, however, though recognizing the natural world to be full of wonder and beauty, refuse to accept it as evidence of the presence and power of God (Rom 1:21). When people humbly submit to God in faith, they see him revealing himself to them through nature (Gen 9:13- 16; Ps 29:3-10; Hab 3:1-19; Matt 6:26,30; see also CREATION; NATURE). In addition to providing a general revelation through nature, God has revealed something of himself through the basic knowledge of right and wrong that he has put within the hearts of all people. This unwritten standard, which makes possible the operation of the human conscience, is sometimes called ‘natural law’ (Rom 2:15; see CONSCIENCE). The revelation through conscience, like the revelation through nature, gives people some understanding of God, but it does not give them the detailed knowledge that is necessary for salvation. Such knowledge comes through the more specific revelation God has made through his spoken and written Word (1 Cor 1:21).
Revelation through Christ and the Word
Earlier revelations of God to individuals prepared the way for the fuller revelation that God gave through the nation Israel (Gen 12:1-3; 17:1-8,16; Exod 3:2-6). The entire Old Testament history of Israel was itself a revelation of God. Through his prophets and other special messengers, God taught his people and interpreted the events of their history to make himself and his purposes known to them (Num 12:6-8; Amos 3:7; Heb 1:1; see PROPHECY). The Old Testament Scriptures are a revelation of God. However, something even greater than this was necessary to save people fully from the consequences of their sin and bring them into a right relation with God. God himself took human form and made himself known perfectly through Jesus Christ (John 1:14,18; 14:8-9; Heb 1:2). The gospel of Jesus Christ reveals how God, through Christ, is able to forgive guilty sinners, declare them righteous and build them into a unified body, the church (Rom 1:17; 16:25-26; Eph 3:5-6; see GOSPEL; MYSTERY). When people come to Christ in repentance and faith, they receive a fuller revelation and a personal understanding of God (Matt 11:27; 16:17; Gal 1:16). Because revelation is solely an activity of God and is exercised according to his sovereign will, God may choose to give additional special revelations to certain people (Acts 9:10-16; 1 Cor 14:30; 2 Cor 12:1,7; Gal 1:11-12; 2:2; Eph 3:3; see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE; PROPHECY; VISION).
Just as God had given revelations during the time leading up to Christ’s coming, so he gave them during the time immediately after Christ’s coming. Previously he had given revelations through the history of Israel; now he gave them through the events of the early church. And just as God used prophets and others to record and interpret his pre-Christ revelation, so he used apostles and others to record and interpret his post-Christ revelation (1 Cor 2:10,13; 2 Peter 3:15-16). The New Testament joins with the Old Testament to form the complete written revelation God has given (see INSPIRATION; SCRIPTURES). From all this it becomes evident that God’s revelation is progressive. This does not mean that later revelations contradict those that were earlier; it means rather that later revelations develop the earlier, as God works towards the completion of his purposes through Jesus Christ (Eph 1:9-12; 3:3-11; 1 Peter 1:10-12; see INTERPRETATION, sub-heading ‘Progressive Revelation’).
REVELATION, BOOK OF
As its title suggests, the book of Revelation reveals things that might otherwise remain unknown. The revelation came from God and the risen Christ by way of the book’s writer to first century Christians, and it concerned things that were soon to take place (Rev 1:1). The traditional view is that the person named John who wrote the book was the apostle John, though no statement in the book makes this identification certain.
Background to the book
The church of the first century was persecuted almost from the beginning. Persecution at first came mainly from the Jews, but as the century progressed, civil authorities also turned against the Christians. The two main periods of persecution from the Roman Emperors came in the sixties under Nero and in the nineties under Domitian. It was during this latter period that John, having been imprisoned for his Christian testimony, received the revelation recorded in this book (Rev 1:9-10). Patmos, the place of John’s imprisonment, was an island off the coast from Ephesus in the west of Asia Minor. Upon receiving the revelation, John wrote it in a book, then sent it with a messenger to the mainland to deliver to a group of seven churches in Asia Minor.
The order in which the churches are listed probably represents the order in which they were visited by the messenger who delivered the letters. From these centres the message would no doubt spread to other churches of the region (Rev 1:11; for map see ASIA). By this time the government was enforcing Emperor worship as a settled policy, with the result that Christians were being imprisoned, tortured and even killed (Rev 2:10,13; 6:9-11). People in general were becoming anti-Christian. To make matters worse, false teachers were troubling the churches by encouraging Christians to participate in pagan religious practices (Rev 2:14,20-21). Some Christians were renouncing their faith, others losing heart. Many were confused, for it seemed that Jesus Christ, the almighty king whom they expected to return in triumph, was either unable or unwilling to save them from the power of Rome. Through John, Jesus reassured the suffering Christians that he was still in control, though he did not want them to build up any false hopes. He gave no guarantee of quick relief. Rather he prepared them for greater endurance, by revealing the extent of the troubles yet to come and the eternal reward for those who stood firm for him. In God’s time he would return to punish all enemies, save his people, and bring in a new and eternal era.
Interpretation of the book
The book of Revelation belongs to a category of literature known as apocalyptic. (The name comes from the Greek apokalypsis, the word translated ‘revelation’ in Rev 1:1.) In apocalyptic literature God gives revelations to people by means of strange visions explained by angels. The visions often feature fearsome beasts and mysterious numbers, and are usually concerned with great conflicts out of which God and his people triumph (see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE). Because Christians of the first century were familiar with apocalyptic literature, they would have readily understood Revelation, but Christians of a different era and culture usually find the book difficult to interpret. Some interpret it as applying wholly to the time of John; others interpret it as applying wholly to the future, when God will bring the world’s history to an end.
Some see the book as a continuous history of the world from John’s time to the end; others see it not as a record of historical events but as a presentation of the victory of the gospel in symbolic pictures. There are countless variations in the interpretation of the book, both as a whole and in its details. In an attempt to solve the difficulties of the book of Revelation, some people simply choose the scheme of interpretation that suits them and reject the rest. But this is not the best way to understand the book’s message. The book is not a collection of puzzles designed to amuse Christians in their spare time by giving them mysteries to solve. It is a book given to strengthen and guide Christians in a time of persecution. The pictures are taken from life under Roman rule as the Christians of John’s time knew it, but the principles are applicable in any era. Anti-Christian persecutions and divine judgments have been repeated throughout the church’s history, from John’s time to the present. But in every era Christians have triumphed through their troubles because of Christ’s victory on the cross (Rev 12:11). Opposition will continue till the world’s last great crisis comes and Jesus Christ returns. In that day the triumphant Saviour will banish evil, save his people, and bring in a new age of peace and joy (Rev 19:13-16; 22:1-5).
Contents of the book
John begins by greeting the seven churches to whom the book is sent (1:1-8), then describes his vision of the risen and exalted Christ, who is Lord of all the churches (1:9-20). Then follow the seven letters. Each of the letters consists of a greeting from the risen Christ, a statement concerning the state of the church, a warning, an instruction and a promise (2:1-3:22). John then has two visions. In the first the Almighty is seated upon his throne and is worshipped as the Creator (4:1-11). In the second the Lamb is victorious out of death and is worshipped as the Redeemer (5:1-14). After this are three series of judgments, each based on the symbolic number seven. In the first series a seven-section scroll is unrolled section by section by breaking one seal for each section. As the scroll is unrolled, each section reveals a vision relating to some aspect of suffering and judgment. There is an interval before the breaking of the final seal, when further visions reassure the faithful.
No matter what they suffer, God will preserve them for his heavenly kingdom (6:1-8:5). In the second series of judgments, each of the seven visions is announced by the blowing of a trumpet. Again there is an interval before the final vision, when further visions reassure the faithful of victory. They may suffer persecution, and perhaps martyrdom, but because of Christ’s victory they are triumphant (8:6-11:19). Before the third series of judgments, John receives a number of visions to show the conflict and ultimate triumph that God’s people can expect. One vision is of a dragon that tries to destroy a woman and her child (12:1-17); another is of a beast that rises out of the sea to fight against God and his people (13:1-10); and a third is of a beast that rises out of the earth in support of the previous beast (13:11-18). However, the redeemed, not the beasts, are the victors (14:1-5), while the wicked suffer destruction (14:6- 20). The third series of judgments then follows, with seven angels pouring out seven bowls of God’s anger upon a rebellious world (15:1-16:21). The overthrow of this rebellious world is then pictured in the destruction of a prostitute (17:1-18) and the burning of Babylon (18:1-19:5). The triumph of God and his people is pictured in a wedding feast, the victorious reign of Jesus Christ, the defeat of Satan and the last great judgment (19:6-20:15). Finally, John has a vision of a new heaven and a new earth, where God dwells with his people in a new order of existence (21:1-22:5). In view of the salvation and judgments that lie ahead, the book urges Christians to be faithful to God, and urges others to accept God’s offered mercy (22:6-21).
REVENGE
Whether in Old or New Testaments, the Bible teaches that people are not to take personal revenge for what they consider to be wrong done to them. They should forgive the offender and allow God to deal with the person as he sees fit (Lev 19:18; Deut 32:35; Rom 12:19; Rev 5:9-11; see WRATH). In the law of Moses, as in the teachings of Jesus, God’s people are taught not even to bear a grudge against their enemies. Far from returning evil for evil, they must positively do good to those who do evil to them (Exod 23:4-5; Lev 19:17-18; Matt 5:44-48; 18:35; see FORGIVENESS). Although individuals have no God-given right to pay back wrongdoers, civil governments have.
They are to execute judgments fairly, and not give a light punishment for a serious offence or a heavy punishment for a minor offence. The punishment must be in proportion to the crime – ‘an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a bruise for a bruise, a scratch for a scratch’ (Exod 21:22-24; Rom 13:4; see GOVERNMENT; CITY OF REFUGE; JUDGE). When Jesus rebuked people for living according to this rule, he was not criticizing the law of Moses. Jesus supported the law of Moses (Matt 5:17), but he opposed people who used the principle of civil justice (‘an eye for an eye’, etc.) as an excuse for personal revenge. The spirit that rules in the hearts of God’s people is not the same as that which rules in the code of legal justice (Matt 5:38-42).
REWARD
The Bible speaks of rewards in both good and bad senses; that is, rewards may result from either the good or the evil that a person does. This article is concerned only with rewards in the good sense, namely, the gifts God gives to his people for their faithfulness and service. (Concerning rewards for wrongdoing see PUNISHMENT.) Rewards are not the same as salvation or eternal life. God saves sinners solely by his grace and gives eternal life as a free gift, not as a reward for personal effort (Rom 6:23; Eph 2:8-9; see FAITH).
Nevertheless, Christians are answerable to God for the way they live. One day they will stand before God to give an account of themselves and receive what they deserve, whether good or bad, according to the way they have lived (2 Cor 5:10; James 2:12; see JUDGMENT). It is possible for Christians to be saved eternally but to receive no reward when God makes an assessment of their lives at the final judgment. This can happen if they live for themselves instead of for God. They build their lives according to the world’s values instead of according to God’s. When God tests what they have built, the test will show it to be worthless. They will lose all, though they themselves will be saved (1 Cor 3:11-15). If Christians look for their reward in the form of praise from fellow believers, they will miss out on the eternal reward from God (Matt 6:1,5; 1 Cor 4:5).
God rewards those who are diligent in their Christian service, who persevere amid trials, who endure sufferings patiently and who make sacrifices for the sake of others (Matt 5:12; 6:4; 10:40-42; Gal 6:9-10; 1 Thess 2:19-20; 1 Peter 5:1-4; 2 John 8). Yet when they have faithfully done all this, they still do not deserve God’s rewards. They have merely done their duty (Luke 17:10). God’s rewards are therefore evidences of his immeasurable grace. They are out of all proportion to the good that people do (Matt 24:45-47; 25:21). They should not be likened to material prizes such as people receive after a competition. Rather they represent the greater capacity that people have to enjoy those lasting realities of the kingdom of God around which true Christians have built their lives (Matt 5:3; 25:21; 2 Tim 4:8).
RIGHTEOUSNESS
The words ‘righteous’ and ‘righteousness’ are found much more in biblical language than in everyday language. Both words, however, are concerned with everyday matters, and for this reason some modern versions of the Bible prefer to use such words as ‘right’, ‘fair’, ‘just’ and ‘honest’. A righteous person is one who, among other things, does right or is in the right.
The source of righteousness
Perfect righteousness is found in God alone. He is perfect in goodness and has a perfect knowledge of what is right and what is wrong (Deut 32:4; Ps 145:17; Isa 45:21; Rom 9:14; Heb 6:18). Since God made human beings in his image, they also have a sense of righteousness. If they are characterized by proper behaviour and moral uprightness, the Bible may speak of them as righteous (Gen 7:1; Ps 15:2; Prov 12:3- 10; Luke 1:6; 2 Cor 9:9-10). This righteousness is not a moral perfection that people achieve by their own efforts, but a right relationship with God that people enter into through faith and obedience (Isa 50:9; Hab 2:4; Rom 3:4-5; 9:31-32; 10:3-4; Gal 3:11-12). It is a righteousness that pleases God and guarantees his help (Ps 45:7-8; Isa 56:1; 1 Peter 3:12).
The legal setting
Righteousness is not simply a private affair; it is a matter also for social concern. God’s righteousness demands social justice (Isa 5:7-9; Amos 5:6-7,24). Justice, in fact, is a prominent characteristic of righteousness in the Bible (see JUSTICE). The Bible commonly uses ‘righteousness’ and related words in a legal setting, where a judge must administer justice righteously. The judge in some cases is God (Gen 18:25; Ps 96:13; Eccles 3:17; Acts 17:31; 2 Tim 4:8; Rev 19:11), in other cases a civil official (Lev 19:15; Deut 4:8; Ezek 23:45; cf. John 7:24). The innocent and the guilty are respectively the righteous and the wicked. In acquitting the innocent, the judge declares him to be in the right, or righteous; in condemning the guilty, the judge declares him to be in the wrong, or wicked (Deut 25:1; 1 Kings 8:32; Job 32:1; Mal 3:18; Matt 13:41-43; 27:19; Rom 2:5-8).
This legal sense of righteousness gives meaning to the biblical teaching of justification by faith. (In both Hebrew and Greek the words ‘righteous’ and ‘justify’ come from the same root.) To justify means to declare righteous. Justification is God’s act of declaring righteous those who put their faith in Christ and his saving work. God does not make believers righteous in the sense of improving them to a standard of behaviour that satisfies him, but rather he declares them righteous. Christ has met God’s righteous demands by paying sin’s penalty on behalf of sinners. God can therefore declare repentant sinners righteous, yet himself remain righteous in doing so (Rom 1:16-17; 3:21-26; 4:1-3; 5:1-2; Gal 2:15-16; 3:21-22; Phil 3:9). (For details of this aspect of the believer’s righteousness see JUSTIFICATION.) Though righteous deeds, or good works, cannot save anyone, once people are saved their lives should be full of righteous deeds (Eph 2:8-10; Phil 1:11). Once God has declared them righteous, they must make it true in practice by living righteously (Rom 6:13,18-19; Eph 4:24; 5:9; Phil 3:8-10; 1 Tim 6:11; 1 Peter 2:24; 3:14).
ROCK
The Old Testament often speaks of God as being like a rock to his people. The reference is to the security and safety that God gives to those who trust in him. Just as a high rocky cliff can be a refuge or fortress, so God is a refuge and fortress to his believing people (Gen 49:24; Ps 18:2; 28:1; 62:2; 78:35; Isa 32:1-2). A rock is also a solid foundation (Matt 7:24). This is probably the central idea in Jesus’ statement to the apostles, through their representative Peter, that they were the rock on which he would build his unconquerable church (Matt 16:18; Eph 2:20). (See also CORNERSTONE; STUMBLING BLOCK.)
ROMANS, LETTER TO THE
In his letter to the Romans, Paul gives his most carefully developed exposition of the gospel. He sets out to teach in a progressive and orderly manner the basis of the salvation in Christ that he preached. While Paul intends this presentation of the gospel to be a means of teaching Christian truth in general, he gives it in the form of a letter that he had specific reasons for writing.
Background to the letter
The church in Rome was already well established when Paul wrote this letter to it. (For the origins of the church there see ROME.) At the time of writing, Paul was in Corinth in the south of Greece (Rom 16:23; cf. 1 Cor 1:14), and he sent the letter with a lady from the Corinth region who was travelling to Rome (Rom 16:1-2). Paul had not yet been to Rome (Rom 1:13; 15:22-23), but he had definite plans to pay a visit in the near future. First, however, he was going in the opposite direction, to Jerusalem. He wanted to deliver to the poor Christians in Jerusalem a gift of money that he had been collecting among the Gentile churches of Greece and Asia Minor (Acts 19:21; Rom 15:23-27). Rome was the centre of the Empire. In Paul’s plan the church there had to be firmly established in an understanding of the Christian gospel, so that it could be a centre from which the gospel could spread west. In sending this letter, Paul hoped to strengthen the church and prepare it for further teaching that he would give when he arrived (Rom 1:11-12,15; 15:14-16,29).
From Rome he planned to move into unevangelized areas farther west, till eventually he reached Spain (Rom 15:20,24,28). In former years there had been a strong anti-Jewish feeling in Rome, and on at least one occasion Jews had been expelled from the city (Acts 18:2). But they had now returned, and there were many Jews in the Roman church alongside their Gentile fellow citizens. Paul considered it necessary to speak at times specifically to the Jews (Rom 2:17-19; 3:9; 4:1), at other times specifically to the Gentiles (Rom 11:13-16,28; 15:14-16). He warned against any anti-Jewish feeling among the Gentiles (Rom 11:17-24; 15:27) and encouraged Jews and Gentiles to be tolerant of each other (Rom 14:1-15:5). The gospel is for all people equally, because all are sinners under God’s judgment and they can be saved only by God’s grace (Rom 1:16; 2:9-11; 3:9,23-24; 10:12; 11:32; 15:8- 9). The chief emphasis in Paul’s exposition is that people are put right with God – justified, declared righteous – solely through God’s grace, and they receive this divine blessing by faith (see FAITH; GRACE; JUSTIFICATION). All people are under the power of sin and are unable to save themselves from its penalty, whether through religious ritual, the keeping of the law or personal good works (see GOOD WORKS; LAW; SIN). Even when saved by grace through faith, believers are still dependent on God for victory over sin. Only the Spirit of God within believers can deliver them from the evil power of the sinful human nature, the flesh (see FLESH; HOLY SPIRIT; SANCTIFICATION).
Contents of Romans
Paul introduces himself by speaking of his longing to visit the Roman Christians (1:1-15). He wants to write about the gospel, and the heart of the gospel is God’s act of declaring righteous those who have faith in Jesus Christ (1:16-17). Salvation is entirely the work of God. It cannot be a human work, because human beings are helpless sinners. Pagans, who have rejected the light of God, are sinners (1:18-32), but so are Jews, who claim to know God (2:1-29). All people are sinners (3:1-20), and therefore if God is to declare anyone righteous, it must be entirely by his grace. The basis of God’s gracious salvation is the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ on the sinner’s behalf (3:21-31). Abraham was justified by faith; his salvation had nothing to do with good works, law-keeping or rituals. Abraham might therefore be called the spiritual father of all who believe (4:1-25).
Believers have confidence because of what God has done for them through Christ (5:1-11); they no longer fear the power of sin, because God’s grace is always sufficient to overcome it (5:12-21). This does not mean that believers may be careless about sin. On the contrary they should live as those who share Christ’s conquest of sin and whose behaviour is characterized by righteousness. They have new life in Christ (6:1-23). Christians are free from the law. They realize that if they try to put themselves back under the law in order to triumph over the sinful human nature, the result will be frustration and despair (7:1-25). Victory comes rather through the indwelling Spirit of the living Christ. The Spirit enables believers to practise the righteousness that the law aimed at but could never produce (8:1-11). The same Spirit gives believers confidence in every aspect of salvation, whether in the present life or in the glorious triumph of the age to come (8:12-39). Paul’s great disappointment is that Israel, the people whom God prepared for this salvation, have on the whole rejected it (9:1-5). As always God has preserved the faithful minority, but the majority have missed out, because they have tried to achieve salvation by keeping the law. Gentiles, by contrast, have accepted it by faith and so are saved (9:6-10:4).
Israelites have no excuse, for the gospel has been plainly preached to them (10:5-21). Although there will always be a minority of Israelites who believe, Paul hopes that the widespread Gentile response to the gospel will stir the unbelieving majority of Israelites to respond likewise. Then the world will enjoy the salvation of God as never before (11:1-36). In gratitude to God for his mercy, believers should live lives of devotion to God. They should contribute to the healthy life of the church and be forgiving to those outside the church who oppose them (12:1-21). Christians should cooperate with the government and show love to everybody (13:1-14). One expression of love is to be considerate of fellow believers who have differing opinions on matters of lesser importance (14:1-15:13). Part of Paul’s reason in writing to the Roman Christians on these matters is that, as God’s apostle to the Gentiles, he has a special responsibility to them. At the same time he stresses that he wants the Gentile Christians to show fellowship towards Jewish Christians (15:14-33). He concludes his letter by sending greetings to many Christians whom he has met in other places over the years and who now live in Rome (16:1-27).
ROME
Within a hundred years of the rise of Greek power under Alexander the Great (334-331 BC), Rome had begun to overrun colonies of the Greek Empire and form them into outlying provinces of Rome. Rome first came into prominence in the affairs of Palestine when the Roman general Pompey seized control of Jerusalem and brought Judea under Roman control (63 BC).
The Roman Empire
After the assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BC), Rome went through a disastrous time of civil war, political confusion and social turmoil. Thousands of people were poor and unable to find work. There was little law and order, corruption was widespread, and ambitious army commanders were constantly plotting for more power. Out of this instability and tension there arose a leader who was able firstly to control and then to correct the disorders. In 27 BC he took the name Caesar Augustus and became the first ruler of what became known as the Roman Empire (Luke 2:1). The people held him in such honour that rulers of the Roman Empire after him took his name Caesar as the title of the Emperor (Luke 3:1; 20:22; Acts 17:7; 25:11,25). There was a widespread feeling of gratitude to Augustus for the peace and order that he brought, and people began praising him as if he were a god. This marked the beginning of Emperor worship, which developed into the official religion of the Empire. The Romans tolerated other religions, provided they had first been registered with the government. But the law still required all people to carry out acts of worship to the Emperor’s image, even though they may have belonged to some other (registered) religion. The Romans did not force Jews to obey this law, as they knew that Jews would not bow to any idol. Christians also refused to worship before the Emperor’s image, but as long as the Roman officials thought that Christianity was merely a sect within the Jewish religion, they took no action against the Christians.
However, once they knew that Christianity was a new religion, different from Judaism and therefore outside Roman law, they persecuted the Christians cruelly. One of the severest outbreaks of persecution occurred after the great fire of Rome (AD 64), which the Emperor Nero blamed on the Christians. At the same time the Romans were becoming increasingly impatient with the Jews, particularly the Jerusalem Jews, who were angry at Rome’s mismanagement of their affairs. A Jewish political group known as the Zealots (or Patriots) were so opposed to Roman rule that they were prepared to fight against it (see ZEALOT). The outcome was that the Romans came and, after overcoming stubborn Jewish resistance, destroyed Jerusalem without mercy (AD 70). The fall of Jerusalem marked not only the downfall of the Jewish nation, but also the end of Judaism’s dominance as a religious force. By this time the Roman Empire extended over much of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia. It lasted for at least another three hundred years, but then began to fall apart. Finally, in AD 476, Rome itself was overthrown by the Germans.
Provinces of the Empire
From the days of the Empire’s beginnings, Rome’s plan was to place a Roman governor in charge of each province of the territory it seized. A series of events in AD 37 resulted in a different arrangement for the province of Judea (which included the region commonly known as Samaria). The ruler over Judea was not a Roman but a Palestinian (Herod the Great) who had persuaded Rome to appoint him ‘king’ of Judea. He was not a sovereign king, for he was under the overall control of Rome (see HEROD). In BC 4, Herod the Great died and his son Archelaus succeeded him. Archelaus was so cruel and unjust that in AD 6 the Jews of Judea asked Rome to remove him and rule them directly through their own officials. From that time on, Judea was ruled by Roman governors (or procurators). The only exception to this was a period of about three years from AD 41 to 44, when Herod Agrippa I was governor over almost the entire region once ruled by his grandfather, Herod the Great (Acts 12:1-4,20-23). Roman governors of Judea mentioned in the Bible are Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36; Luke 3:1; 13:1; 23:1,6,24; John 18:29-38; 19:38), Felix (AD 52-59; Acts 23:26,33; 24:25) and Porcius Festus (AD 59-62; Acts 25:1-5,13-14; 26:24). Caesarea, a city built on the Mediterranean coast by Herod the Great, was the administrative centre for the province of Judea.
The governor usually went to Jerusalem during Jewish festivals to help maintain law and order in the city (Acts 23:33; 25:1-6; cf. Matt 27:1-2; Mark 14:1-2). Since the possibility always existed that riots could break out in the provinces, governors were ready to act as soon as any sign of rebellion appeared (John 11:48-50; Acts 17:6-9; 19:40; 21:31-36). They were also responsible for the administration of justice and the collection of taxes (Luke 2:1; Acts 19:38; 25:9- 10; Rom 13:1-7). Administrators in some of the provinces were called proconsuls (Acts 13:7; 18:12; 19:38). There was widespread travel throughout the Roman Empire. Government officials, businessmen and soldiers moved to all parts of the Empire, often settling in places that the Romans called colonies. These were towns established as centres of Roman life in the non-Roman world of the provinces, and their citizens had the privileges of Roman citizenship and self-government. Pisidian Antioch, Lystra, Troas, Corinth and Philippi were all Roman colonies (Acts 16:12). The Romans built an extensive system of roads to link these and other major towns to Rome and to each other.
Paul appreciated the stability that Roman rule produced and the advantages that the government’s development programs provided for the spread of Christianity (Rom 13:1-7; cf. 1 Peter 2:13-17). Like the Romans he had a spirit of enterprise, a mind for planning and a vision for the world (Rom 15:19-20; 2 Cor 10:16; Col 1:6). He moved from province to province along the Roman roads, aiming to establish churches in the major towns. Once strong churches were established in these towns, the gospel would spread quickly into the regions round about (Acts 13:14,49; 14:1,6-7,20-21,24; see MISSION). In particular, Paul saw the importance of having a strong church at the centre of the Empire (Acts 19:21; Rom 1:9-13; 15:14-15,23-24).
Roman citizenship
Originally a Roman citizen was a person who lived in Rome, where citizens enjoyed special privileges given them by the Emperor. Later, the Roman government extended this citizenship to people of other cities and provinces. They extended it also to people who had given outstanding service to the Empire, and even to those who could afford to buy it (Acts 22:28a). This citizenship passed on to the person’s children (Acts 22:28b). People did not have to be of Roman blood to be Roman citizens (Acts 16:37; Phil 3:5). Those who were Roman citizens had rights not enjoyed by other citizens. They could not be beaten by local officials (Acts 16:36-39; 22:25-29) and could not be executed without a verdict from a general meeting of the people. If they were not satisfied with the standard of justice they received, they could appeal direct to the Emperor (Acts 25:10-12,25-27; 26:32; 27:1-2; 28:16).
The city of Rome
Built on the famous ‘seven hills’ in 753 BC, Rome was one of the world’s great cities. In the era of the New Testament it had a population of more than one million. Included in this population were people of many nationalities, some of whom the Romans expelled if they thought they were going to become troublemakers (Acts 18:2). The Bible does not say how the church in Rome began. The church may have been formed partly by Romans who were converted in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost and who took their new-found faith back to Rome (cf. Acts 2:10,14,41). In addition, Christians from other parts of the Empire no doubt travelled to and from Rome or went there to live, and these might have had some part in founding the church there (Rom 16:1-16). Paul’s letter to the church in Rome makes it clear that at the time of writing he had not yet visited Rome (Rom 1:10-15; 15:20-22; see ROMANS, LETTER TO THE). Paul was at one time held prisoner in Rome for two years (Acts 28:16,20,30). This was most likely the time during which he wrote the letters known to us as Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians and Philippians (Eph 6:20; Phil 1:13; Col 4:10; Philem 23).
At the end of his two years imprisonment Paul almost certainly was released, though we cannot be sure of the details of his later movements. After further travels Paul was arrested and taken to Rome as a prisoner once again, but this time he knew he had little chance of being released (2 Tim 1:17; 2:9; 4:6-8). From Rome he wrote his last letter, a personal note to Timothy known to us as 2 Timothy. It seems that soon after writing the letter he was beheaded (about AD 62). Possibly about this time Peter arrived in Rome, along with Silas (or Silvanus), his fellow worker. Using Silas as his secretary, Peter wrote a letter to the churches of the northern part of Asia Minor that he had helped to evangelize. In this letter (known to us as 1 Peter) he referred to Rome symbolically as Babylon (1 Peter 5:12-13). The reason for this use of Babylon as a name for Rome was that Rome, like Babylon of Old Testament times, was the clear expression of human rebellion against God. It was the embodiment of that spirit by which arrogant human beings, in the pride of their power and achievements, defy God and persecute his people (Rev 17:1-18). The downfall of Babylon pictures more than the downfall of Rome. It pictures the final overthrow of the entire world system that people have built and organized in opposition to God and his people (Rev 18:1-24).
RULER
Any society must have some sort of leadership if it is to function effectively. In primitive societies the heads of families provided that leadership (Gen 14:14; 32:3-6). As societies developed, the leadership came from recognized officials who administered the affairs of the community (Ruth 4:2). There is great variety in the types of rulers who feature in the Bible, but the Bible consistently encourages God’s people to do what they can to cooperate with their rulers for the good of society as a whole (Jer 29:7; Titus 3:1; 1 Peter 2:13-14).
Leadership in Old Testament
Israel Even when the Israelites were slaves in Egypt and had no government of their own, senior men in the community were recognized as leaders (Exod 3:16; 4:29; 12:21). After the establishment of the Israelite nation under Moses, seventy elders were appointed to share the civil leadership with Moses. In the early days of Israel’s national life, these elders served as judges in matters of civil law (Exod 18:17-26; Num 11:16-17,24-25). As Israel’s administration developed, elders and judges became two separate groups of officials (Deut 21:2; 22:15; 25:7-8; Josh 8:33; 20:4; Judg 11:5; Micah 7:3; Zeph 3:3-4; see JUDGE). Religious affairs, however, were under the control of priests (see PRIEST). God wanted Israel to recognize him as their supreme ruler and to obey his laws. The priests and elders were merely the administrators of those laws. But the people failed to follow God’s laws, and the first few centuries of their national life in Canaan were marked by repeated judgments from God in the form of invasions from neighbouring nations.
In response to the people’s repentance, God raised up deliverers from among them to overthrow the enemy and re-establish his rule among them. But the peace was often followed by periods of disobedience, which brought renewed suffering (Judg 2:13-19; see JUDGES, BOOK OF). In search of stability, the people asked to have a king to rule over the whole nation, as neighbouring nations had. This was a rejection of God, for it was an attempt by the people to correct their problems by changing from one political system to another, rather than by changing from rebellion against God to obedience (1 Sam 8:4-7; see KING). The people got the monarchy they wanted, though even under the new system of government the elders retained considerable influence in the nation (1 Kings 8:1; 20:7; 21:8; 2 Kings 23:1). After the Jews’ captivity in Babylon and return to their homeland, the Persian overlords appointed prominent Jews to positions of leadership in the nation (Ezra 7:25-26; Neh 5:14; 7:2). During this period religious leaders became more and more involved in civil affairs. Their authority grew rapidly through the function of synagogues that began to appear throughout the country, and through the establishment of a national Jewish council called the Sanhedrin (Matt 23:2-4; 26:59; John 7:32; 9:22; see SANHEDRIN; SCRIBES; SYNAGOGUE).
Conditions in New Testament times
In spite of being under the rule of firstly Greece and then Rome, the Jewish leaders were able to maintain firm control over their people in many of the everyday affairs of life. In New Testament times they had considerable influence with the Roman authorities. In fact, the Jewish leaders were the ones really responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus (Matt 27:1-2,20; Acts 4:8-10). Jesus recognized the authority of civil rulers, though he pointed out that they were responsible to God for the way they used their authority (Luke 20:25; John 19:11). Although he refused to use force against unjust treatment (Matt 26:52; John 18:36), Jesus showed, by being outspoken on one occasion and defiantly silent on another, his contempt for the misuse of power (Luke 13:32; 23:9).
When the rulers put him on trial, his conduct before them showed them clearly that he saw no justice in their actions. Yet he tried neither to escape nor to retaliate. In the end he was executed (Matt 27:11-14; John 19:9-11; 1 Peter 2:23). Christians likewise must recognize the authority of the civil rulers (Rom 13:1-7; 1 Peter 2:13-14,17), though they too will at times see the need to speak out against injustice (Acts 16:37-39; 25:8-11). Like Jesus they may suffer at the hands of unjust rulers (Matt 10:18; Acts 12:2-3), but they must not return evil for evil (Rom 12:17-19; 1 Peter 2:20-21; 3:14; see GOVERNMENT; JUSTICE). Because of their loyalty to God, Christians may at times have to disobey laws that are anti-Christian. As a result they may suffer imprisonment and even death (Acts 5:29,40-41; 1 Peter 4:16; Rev 13:6-7; 18:24). Through it all, however, God will be faithful to them, and in the end they will be the victors (1 Peter 4:19; Rev 2:10-11; 20:4; see MARTYR).