Diccionario Bíblico - Letra S - King James Version Bible

SABBATH

The word ‘sabbath’ comes from the Hebrew word meaning ‘to cease’. In the Genesis story of creation, God ceased from his work of creation after six days, then rested on the seventh (Gen 2:1-3). It seems that from early times people in general recognized a week of seven days (Gen 8:10,12; 29:27), and God’s people in particular ceased their work one day in seven. This was for two purposes: firstly, to set the day apart for God instead of using it for themselves; secondly, to rest from their daily work and so gain refreshment (Exod 16:22-30).

God’s appointment for

Israel When God formally established Israel as his people and gave them his laws, one of the laws was that they had to rest from their work every seventh day. The day was set apart especially for God and was, in fact, a sign that the people were bound to God by covenant. Anyone who did his work on that day was to be put to death (Exod 20:8-11; 31:13-17; Num 15:32-36; Deut 5:15). Among the religious exercises of the Sabbath were the offering of sacrifices and the renewing of the ‘presence bread’ in the tabernacle (Lev 24:5-9; Num 28:9-10).

Working animals, such as oxen and donkeys, also had rest one day in seven (Deut 5:14; cf. Neh 13:15-21), and the land had rest one year in seven (Lev 25:3-4; see SABBATICAL YEAR). A festival day on which people were to do no work was also called a Sabbath, though it may not have coincided with the usual weekly Sabbath (Lev 16:29-31; 23:30-32; John 19:31). Much of the Jewish Sabbath-keeping was not pleasing to God, because of the wrong attitudes of many of the people. Some were annoyed because it interrupted their money-making activities (Amos 8:5), and others used the day for their own pleasure, without concern for God (Isa 58:13-14; Jer 17:21-23). Through despising God’s covenant requirements, the people in the end brought destruction upon the nation (Ezek 20:23-24; 23:38). After the return from captivity in Babylon, Nehemiah introduced special laws to prevent people from working and trading on the Sabbath (Neh 13:15-22). Over the next few centuries the teachers of the law (the scribes) built up a system of countless Sabbath regulations to add to the simple requirements of the law of Moses (cf. Mark 2:23-24; Luke 14:3-4; John 5:10; Acts 1:12). Through schools and synagogues, the teachers of the law spread and enforced their regulations. In doing so they often disregarded the Word of God, and as a result came into conflict with Jesus (Luke 13:10-17; see SCRIBES; SYNAGOGUE; TRADITION).

The new era

Jesus pointed out that although God gave rules to guide people concerning what they may or may not do on the Sabbath, to do good on the Sabbath was always right (Matt 12:9-13). Just as God’s daily work in caring for his creation does not break the Sabbath law, neither did Jesus’ work in healing the sick on the Sabbath (John 5:16-18). Life is more important than ritual. God gave the Sabbath for people’s benefit, not their discomfort. The Sabbath was intended to ease their burden, not increase it (Matt 12:1-8; 23:4). As Lord of the Sabbath, Jesus knew best how to use it. While he kept the law of God (Matt 5:17; Luke 4:16), he opposed the traditions of the scribes and Pharisees (Mark 7:6-9). At the same time he knew that the law-code that Moses had given to Israel had fulfilled its purpose and was about to pass away. A new age was about to dawn (Matt 9:16-17). Jesus’ death and resurrection marked the end of the law as a binding force upon God’s people (Rom 7:6; 8:1-3; 10:4; Col 2:14). Christians are free from the bondage of the Israelite law and must not become its slaves. This applies to all the requirements of the law, whether concerning the Sabbath or any other matter (Gal 4:8-11; Col 2:16). On the other hand Christians can learn from the law. Although that law was given to a particular people (Israel) for a particular period (from Moses to Christ), the idea of a weekly day of rest existed before the time of Moses and continued after the time of Christ. It was taken from the symbolic rest of God, which expressed his satisfaction in bringing his creative work to its goal with the creation of Adam and Eve (Gen 2:1-3; Exod 20:11).

From the beginning of human existence, God has wanted people to find true rest through coming into a living relationship with their Creator. God desires also that within that relationship, they enjoy the created world and all their activity in it (Eccles 5:18-20; 12:1; Heb 4:1-4). The one-day-in-seven rest is a reminder to them that when work so dominates them that they have no time to cease from it, then it has become a god. Restful contemplation is as essential as energetic activity in the worship and service of God (cf. Ps 46:10). Even when the early Christians no longer kept the Jewish Sabbath, they still set aside time each week for fellowship with God and with one another. This was usually the first day of the week, a day that they called the Lord’s Day, because it was the day of Jesus’ resurrection (John 20:19; Acts 20:7; 1 Cor 16:2; Rev 1:10). Sunday did not replace Saturday, as if it were a Christian Sabbath to replace the Jewish Sabbath. Nevertheless, it provided the opportunity to give practical expression to those values of cessation from work and devotion to God that God desired for people from the beginning. Some people in the early church wanted to recognize certain days as having a kind of legal sacredness; others refused such recognition, since the church was not regulated by law. Paul taught that each person be tolerant of the other’s view, and that Christians treat every day in a way that acknowledges and honours God (Rom 14:5-6).

14:5-6).

SABBATICAL YEAR

A sabbatical year was a year when all farming land was given rest from agricultural activity. It was supposed to occur every seventh year throughout Israel’s history. There was also to be release for debtors and a public reading of the Mosaic law every seventh year. Although these latter two functions were not specifically connected with the year of rest for the land, they were probably arranged to coincide with it.

Rest for the land

Just as people and their working animals rested one day in seven, so the land was to be rested one year in seven. By ceasing agricultural activity during this year, the Israelites had the opportunity to recognize in a special way that God was the rightful owner of the land. They were merely tenants, and could not treat God’s land as they wished. Also, the rest from farming gave the land the opportunity to clear itself of pests and restore its natural powers of production (Exod 23:10-11; Lev 25:1-7,23). The people had no reason to fear a shortage of food during the sabbatical year. God would bless every sixth year with double the normal produce, so that people could store up food for use the next year. In addition there would be enough natural growth during the sabbatical year for people such as the poor who could not store up in advance. There would also be enough for the flocks and herds (Lev 25:6- 7,12,18-22). If the people disobeyed God’s laws and did not rest the land one year in seven, God would force them to rest it by driving them from it (Lev 26:34-43; cf. 2 Chron 36:20-21; Jer 34:13-22).

Release for debtors

At the end of every seven years, Israelites were to forgive any debts owed them by fellow Israelites. They were to consider themselves one big family, where those who had money helped those who were in need. They were not to refuse anyone a loan, even if the year of release was approaching. However, in the case of foreigners who owed Israelites debts, normal business procedures applied (Deut 15:1-11). Israelites who were slaves of their fellow Israelites were also released in the seventh year. Foreigners who were slaves of Israelites apparently did not enjoy this privilege (Deut 15:12-18; Lev 25:44-46; see SLAVE).

Reading of the law

One duty of the priests in the year of release was to gather the people together for a public reading of the law, to remind them of their responsibilities as God’s people. This reading was to take place at the central place of worship when the people assembled to celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles (Deut 31:9-13).

SACKCLOTH

People put on sackcloth as a sign of mourning, whether for those who had just died (Gen 37:34; 2 Sam 3:31), for some personal distress (Job 16:15), or for a national disaster (Esther 4:1; Lam 2:10). They also put on sackcloth as a sign of sorrow for personal sins (1 Kings 21:27-29; Neh 9:1-2) or urgency in prayer (Dan 9:3). The sackcloth was worn either over the top of, or instead of, their normal clothing (2 Kings 6:30; Job 16:15; Jonah 3:6; see DRESS).

SACRAMENT

According to common usage, the word ‘sacrament’ refers to some formal religious act that is an outward sign of an inward spiritual truth. The two sacraments commanded by Jesus are baptism and the Lord’s Supper (Matt 28:19; 1 Cor 11:23-24). They are also called ‘ordinances’, meaning rites or ceremonies established by divine command. Baptism is an outward expression of faith in Christ and what he has done for believers through his death and resurrection (Acts 2:38; Rom 6:3-4; see BAPTISM). The Lord’s Supper is an outward expression of fellowship with the risen Christ and his people, through recalling his sacrificial death and proclaiming its eternal blessings (Matt 26:26-29; 1 Cor 10:16-17; 11:26; see LORD’S SUPPER).

SACRIFICE

From earliest times people expressed their devotion to God through presenting to him offerings and sacrifices. Some sacrifices expressed thanks, as people presented to God the best of their crops or animals (Gen 4:4; 8:20). Others emphasized fellowship, both with God and with others, as the offerers ate part of the sacrifice in a meal with relatives and friends (Gen 31:54). Other sacrifices were for forgiveness of sins, a slaughtered animal bearing the penalty that the offerers, because of their sins, should have suffered (Job 42:8). These basic elements of the sacrifices were later developed in the ceremonial law of Israel.

Offerers and their offerings

Whether before or after the institution of Israel’s ceremonial law, the heart attitude of the worshipper was always more important than his gifts. Abel offered his sacrifice in humble faith and God accepted it. Cain offered his sacrifice in a spirit of arrogance and God refused it. Even if Cain’s sacrifice, like Abel’s, had involved the shedding of blood, it would still have been unacceptable to God, because Cain himself was ungodly and unrepentant (Gen 4:2-5,7; Heb 11:4; 1 John 3:12). The Bible’s first specific statement concerning the particular significance of blood did not come till the time of Noah. The first clear revelation of the value of blood for atonement had to wait till the time of Moses (Gen 9:3-6; Lev 17:11). God revealed his purposes progressively as people were able to understand them, but always his acceptance of the offering depended on the spiritual condition of the offerer. The sacrificial system of Israel did not ignore this principle; rather it had this principle as its basis. Therefore, when people carried out the rituals mechanically, without corresponding faith and uprightness, the prophets condemned their sacrifices as worthless (Isa 1:13-20; Amos 5:21-24; Micah 6:6-8).

God’s gift of the blood of atonement

The Passover in Egypt marked an important stage in God’s revelation of the special significance of blood. Blood was a symbol of life; shed blood was therefore a symbol of death; in particular, death through killing (Gen 9:4-6; Num 35:19,33; see BLOOD). In the original Passover, the blood of the lamb was important, not because of any chemical property in the blood itself, but because it represented the animal’s death. The blood around the door showed that an animal had been killed instead of the person under judgment (Exod 12:13). In Israel’s sacrificial system God provided a way of atonement through the shed blood of animals. Through sin people were separated from God and under the penalty of death, and there was nothing they could do to save themselves. There could be no forgiveness of their sin, no releasing them from its consequences, apart from death. God, however, provided a way of salvation through the blood (that is, the death) of a guiltless substitute. The blood of atonement was not an offering people made in the hope of squeezing pardon from an unwilling God. On the contrary it was the merciful gift of a God who was eager to forgive (Lev 17:11). The escaping of divine punishment was not something that sinners brought about, but was due to God himself (see PROPITIATION). Although an animal substitute had to bear the death penalty so that the sinner could be forgiven (Heb 9:22), the blood of an animal could not itself take away sins (Heb 10:4).

Nevertheless, it enabled the sinner to see that God, in forgiving sins, was not ignoring those sins but dealing with them. The only blood that can bring forgiveness of sins is the blood of Jesus – his death on the cross. God knew of Jesus’ atoning death even though it had not yet occurred (1 Peter 1:18-20), and because of that he was able to ‘pass over’, temporarily, the sins of believers of former generations. He forgave them, one might say, on credit, for their sins could not be actually removed till Christ died (Rom 3:25-26; Heb 9:15). The sacrificial system helped people see what salvation involved, but it was not in itself a means of salvation. Under the old covenant, as under the new, people were saved not through their works, but through the grace of a merciful God. The repentant sinner could do nothing but accept God’s salvation by faith (Rom 4:13,16,22; Gal 3:17-19; Eph 2:8-9). The benefit of the sacrificial system was that it gave people a means of communication with God, by which they could demonstrate their faith and seek God’s forgiveness (1 Sam 1:3; Isa 56:7).

Ritual requirements

God set out the legal requirements for the various sacrifices in great detail, and these details should have helped the Israelites understand the meaning of what they were doing. The sacrificial animal, for instance, had to be without defects, to symbolize that it was free from condemnation and therefore fit to be the guiltless substitute for the guilty sinner (Lev 1:3,10; see LAMB). No matter what people offered, it had to be their own property, so that it had meaning as part of them personally, so to speak. As an offering, it was a personal possession they gave. As a sacrifice, it cost them something. It impressed upon them that they could not treat the removal of sin lightly. Devotion to God was not to be treated cheaply. At the same time God did not want to drive people into poverty. In many cases he therefore allowed grades of offerings, so that people could make offering that were suited to their varying financial capacities (Lev 1:3,10,14; 5:7-13). By laying their hands on the animal’s head, offerers indicated that it bore their guilt and they wanted God to accept it on their behalf (Lev 1:4; 16:21). The unpleasant task of killing the animal (which was carried out beside the altar, not on it) reminded them of the horror of sin (Lev 1:11).

The priest collected the blood in a basin to apply to various places as a visible sign that a life had been taken to bear the curse and penalty of sin. Unused blood was poured out on the ground beside the altar (Lev 1:5; 4:7; 16:14). Some burning occurred with all the sacrifices, though the amount that was burnt varied. The parts to be burnt were usually burnt on the altar of sacrifice, though in some cases they were burnt in an isolated place away from the central camp (Lev 1:9; 2:2; 3:3-5; 4:10-12,35; 7:5). The portions not burnt were eaten, sometimes by the worshippers and the priests (including the priests’ families) and sometimes by the priests alone (Lev 2:3,10; 6:26; 7:15-17,32; 22:11).

Five main offerings

Israel’s sacrificial system had five main categories of sacrifice, though there were variations of these on certain occasions. The major categories were the burnt offering (Lev 1:1-17; 6:8-13), the cereal (or grain) offering (Lev 2:1-16; 6:14-23), the peace (or fellowship) offering (Lev 3:1-17; 7:11-38), the sin offering (Lev 4:1-5,13; 6:24-30) and the guilt (or repayment) offering (Lev 5:14-6:7; 7:1-10). Although the different types of sacrifices were for different purposes, elements of atonement and devotion were associated with them all (Lev 1:5; 2:2; 3:2,5; 4:5-7; 5:18). The burnt offering, so called because the whole animal was burnt upon the altar, indicated the complete consecration, or self-dedication, of the offerer to God (Lev 1:9; cf. Gen 8:20; 22:2; Exod 10:25; Rom 12:1). A burnt offering, offered on behalf of the entire nation, was kept burning on the altar constantly, as a symbol of the nation’s unbroken dedication to God (Exod 29:38-42). The cereal (or grain) offering and its associated wine (or drink) offering demonstrated thanks to God for his daily provision of food. Cereal and wine offerings were not offered alone, but always with burnt offerings or peace offerings. The wine was poured over the animal sacrifice on the altar, and a handful of cereal was burnt with it (Lev 2:4-10; 23:13,18; Num 15:1-10).

The peace offering expressed fellowship, a truth demonstrated in the meal that accompanied it. After initial blood ritual, burning ritual and presentation of a portion to the priest, the worshipper joined with his family, friends, the poor and the needy in eating the remainder of the animal in a joyous feast (Lev 7:11-18; Deut 12:7,12; 1 Sam 9:12-13). The sin offering was compulsory for those who became aware that they had broken one of God’s laws. In cases of sin by priests or the nation as a whole, the priests sprinkled the animal’s blood inside the Holy Place, burnt parts of the animal on the altar of sacrifice, and burnt the remainder outside the camp (Lev 4:7,10,12). In cases of sin by private citizens, the priests sprinkled the blood at the altar of sacrifice, burnt parts of the animal on the altar, and ate what remained (Lev 4:27-30; 6:26,30). The guilt offering was offered in those cases where the person’s wrongdoing could be given a monetary value. Such wrongdoing would include forgetting to pay tithes, causing damage to property, or failing to pay for goods (Lev 5:15; 6:1-5). The person presented an offering (similar to the sin offering for a private citizen) and repaid the loss, along with a fine of one fifth of its value (Lev 5:16; 6:5).

Limitations of the offerings

In general, the sacrifices detailed in the Israelite law were available only for unintentional sins. None of the five categories of sacrifice set out a procedure to deal with deliberate sin, even though that is the sin that most troubles the repentant sinner (Lev 4:2,13,22,27; 5:15,17; Num 15:30). The sacrificial system demonstrated that no system could solve the problem of sin or provide automatic cleansing. Sinners had no right to forgiveness. They could do nothing except turn to God and cast themselves on his mercy (2 Sam 24:14; Ps 51:1-2,16-17). This does not mean that the sacrifices were useless or could be ignored. They still provided a means of communication by which repentant sinners could approach God, express their repentance and ask God’s forgiveness. The sacrifices pointed beyond themselves to something higher, the merciful love of God (Micah 7:18-20).

Cleansing and response

Animal sacrifices could not in themselves remove sin (Heb 10:1-4), but they at least showed that sacrificial death was necessary for the removal of sin (Heb 9:22). The one sacrificial death that has achieved what all the Old Testament sacrifices could not achieve is the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ (Heb 10:11-14,17-18). Unlike the animal sacrifices, Christ’s sacrifice removes sin, cleanses the conscience, brings total forgiveness and secures eternal redemption (Heb 9:9-14,25-26; 10:14-18). The book of Hebrews goes to some length to display the perfection of Christ’s work, presenting him as both priest and sacrifice. In particular, it contrasts his sacrificial work with the sacrificial work of the Israelite high priest on the Day of Atonement (Heb 9:6-7,11-12,25-26; see DAY OF ATONEMENT; PRIEST). Besides being the only way of atonement, the sacrifice of Christ is an example to Christians of the sort of life they should live. Christ’s sacrifice was a willing sacrifice, an act of obedience and love. God wants his people to show their obedience and love by willingly sacrificing themselves for the sake of others (Eph 5:2,25; cf. John 15:12-13; Rom 5:8; Heb 10:7,10). The sacrifices of Christians, then, are spiritual sacrifices, which are offered in response to God’s love and mercy (1 Peter 2:5). They are not atoning sacrifices, for Christ’s one sacrifice has already brought complete release from sin’s penalty (Heb 10:17-18). Christians offer to God the sacrifices of worship, praise and service (Rom 15:16; Phil 4:18; Heb 13:15). But they will be able to present such sacrifices properly only when they have first given themselves to God as living sacrifices (Rom 12:1; 2 Cor 8:5).

SADDUCEES

In New Testament times the two main parties within the Jewish religion were the Sadducees and the Pharisees. The beginnings of these two parties can be traced back to the second century BC, when Greek influence was having its effect on the Jewish people.

Origins

The influence of Greek ideas in Jewish affairs produced tension between those Jews who favoured it and those who resisted it. When conflict broke out between the two groups, the Greek ruler in Syria, Antiochus Epiphanes, used it as an excuse to invade Jerusalem and try to destroy the Jewish religion. (For details of this period of Jewish history see GREECE.) Under the leadership of a priestly family known as the Maccabees (or Hasmoneans) the Jews rebelled against Antiochus, and after three years of fighting regained religious freedom (165 BC). When the Maccabees wanted to keep fighting and regain political freedom as well, the religiously strict Jews objected. They opposed the Maccabees’ political ambitions just as they had opposed the interference of Greek politics in Jewish affairs. These two factions were the forerunners of the Sadducees and the Pharisees. The former favoured political as well as religious freedom, whereas the latter were satisfied with religious freedom.

The Maccabees carried on the war in spite of internal opposition, and after twenty years they won political independence (143 BC). A clear division now existed among the Jews. The pro-political group consisted of powerful priests and wealthy leaders who were favoured by the Hasmonean rulers. The other group consisted largely of commoners who were politically powerless but favoured by most of the people. Later, a dispute concerning the Hasmonean ruler’s right to be high priest led to the open formation of the Sadducee and Pharisee parties. (The name ‘Sadducee’ possibly comes from Zadok, the priest of Solomon’s time whose descendants came to be regarded as the only legitimate priestly line; 1 Kings 1:38-39; Ezek 44:15-16; 48:11; see ZADOK.)

Religious power

Some of the Sadducees’ religious beliefs further emphasized the differences between the two parties. The Pharisees followed strictly the traditions handed down from their forefathers, but the Sadducees had little interest in the traditions. They were concerned only with the commandments actually written in the law of Moses. Also, they did not believe in the continued existence of the soul after death, the bodily resurrection of the dead, the directing will of God in the events of life, or the existence of angelic beings. These were all important beliefs for the Pharisees (Matt 22:23; Acts 4:1-2; 23:7-8). In spite of their dislike for the Pharisees, the Sadducees readily joined with them to oppose Jesus (Matt 16:1-4; 22:15,23,34). Jesus condemned them, along with the Pharisees, for their hypocrisy (Matt 16:6,12). Most of the leading priests of New Testament times were Sadducees, and they enjoyed the support of the upper class Jews. The high priest, who was president of the Sanhedrin, was a Sadducee, and through him and his close associates the Sadducees exercised much power in the Sanhedrin (Acts 4:1-3; 5:17-21; see SANHEDRIN).

The Sadducees were particularly hostile to the early Christians. This was chiefly for two reasons. Firstly, the apostles’ accusation of injustice on the part of the Sanhedrin was really an accusation against the ruling Sadducees (Acts 4:5-10; 5:27-28). Secondly, the church’s rapid growth was based on the truth of the resurrection, which the Sadducees denied (Acts 4:1-2,10,17). The Sadducees had little following among the common people, and in fact were afraid of violence from them if they treated the Christians too harshly (Acts 4:2,17,21; 5:17,26). Only when the Pharisees turned against the Christians were the Sadducees able to use the full power of the Sanhedrin against the Christians (Acts 6:12-15; 7:58; 8:1; cf. Phil 3:5-6). With the Romans’ destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in AD 70, the Sadducees lost the priestly base that had maintained them. The party soon died out.

SALT

Apart from its obvious use in cooking, salt was widely used in the ancient world to keep perishable foods from decay (Lev 2:13; Job 6:6). Because of salt’s uses and characteristics, the Bible refers to it to illustrate aspects of the lives of Christians. Just as salt gives food a good taste, so the gracious qualities of their new life in Christ should make the speech of Christians wholesome and pleasant (Col 4:6). If they are living as they should, Christians will be a good influence in a world corrupted by sin (Matt 5:13; Mark 9:50). Because of its use in flavouring and preserving, salt symbolized a close and permanent relationship between people. It had a ceremonial use in making covenants, where it symbolized the unbroken loyalty that the two parties promised to the covenant (Lev 2:13; Num 18:19; 2 Chron 13:5; see COVENANT).

Sometimes, however, salt symbolized judgment and desolation. This was because salty land was useless for farming and became a barren waste. Therefore, a conqueror may have sprinkled salt over a destroyed city to symbolize that it was to be left in permanent desolation (Deut 29:23; Judg 9:45; Jer 17:6; Zeph 2:9). The Israelites obtained their salt mainly from the region around the Dead Sea, which was itself so rich in salt that it was sometimes called the Salt Sea (Gen 14:3; Josh 3:16; 15:5; 18:19). Somewhere to the south-west of the Dead Sea, in the dry region of Israel known as the Negeb, was a place called the Valley of Salt (2 Sam 8:13; 2 Kings 14:7). (For further details of the Dead Sea and the Negeb see PALESTINE.)

SALVATION

God’s salvation, as the Old Testament spoke of it, had a broad meaning. It referred to deliverance or preservation from disease, dangers, sufferings, death and the consequences of wrongdoing (Exod 14:30; Judg 2:11-16; Ps 34:6; 37:40; Jer 4:14; 17:14). The means of God’s salvation may have been a warrior, a king, or some other national leader (Judg 3:9; 2 Kings 13:5), but in the highest sense the saviour was always God (1 Sam 14:23; Isa 33:22; 43:3,11,15; Hab 3:18). In the New Testament, salvation may have the same broad meaning as in the Old Testament (Acts 27:20,43; 2 Cor 1:10; 2 Thess 3:2; 2 Peter 2:9), but its best known meaning is in relation to deliverance from sin and its consequences.

This salvation comes from God through Jesus Christ (Matt 1:21; Luke 2:11; 19:10; John 3:17; 12:47; Acts 4:12; 1 Tim 1:15) and it is possible only because Jesus Christ atoned for sin in his death on the cross (1 Cor 1:18; Titus 2:14; see ATONEMENT; SIN). This salvation is so great that no words can describe it fully. The Bible therefore uses many different pictures of salvation in an effort to help people understand what God has done. One picture is that of the courtroom, where God the judge declares believers righteous and acquits them (Rom 3:26; 8:33; see JUSTIFICATION). Another picture is that of slavery, which shows that God has freed believers from the bondage of sin (1 Peter 1:18-19; see REDEMPTION). The picture of new birth shows that God gives life to those who are spiritually dead (1 Peter 1:23; see REGENERATION), and the picture of adoption shows how God places believers in his family and gives them the full status of sons (Rom 8:15; see ADOPTION).

A further picture is that of God’s turning those who are his enemies into his friends (Rom 5:10-11; see RECONCILIATION). The picture of a sacrificial offering expresses further aspects of salvation; for example, the death of a sacrificial victim in the place of the sinner (Heb 9:26; see SACRIFICE), and the presentation of an offering to turn away God’s anger against sin (Rom 3:25; see PROPITIATION). But regardless of whatever picture the Bible uses, it emphasizes constantly that salvation is solely by God’s grace, and that people receive it through faith and repentance (Acts 5:31; 16:30-31; 20:21; 1 Cor 1:21; Eph 2:8-9; Titus 3:3-7; see FAITH; GRACE; REPENTANCE).

There are past, present and future aspects of salvation. The past aspect is that believers already have been saved because of Christ’s death for them. Their sin has been dealt with, they are no longer under condemnation, and they have the assurance of eternal life (John 5:24; Rom 5:1-2; Eph 2:1,8; see ASSURANCE). The present aspect is that believers continue to experience the saving power of God in victory over sin in their daily lives (1 Cor 1:18; Phil 2:12; 2 Tim 1:8-9; see SANCTIFICATION). The future aspect is that believers will experience the fulfilment of their salvation at the return of Jesus Christ (Rom 8:24; 13:11; Phil 3:20; 1 Thess 5:9; Heb 9:28; 1 Peter 1:5; see RESURRECTION).

SAMARIA, SAMARITANS A

Samaritan was an inhabitant of Samaria, but there was a difference between the Samaria of the Old Testament and the Samaria of the New. In the time of Israel’s Old Testament monarchy, Samaria was a city in central Israel and its inhabitants were Israelites. In New Testament times Samaria was the central region of Palestine and its inhabitants were non-Israelites.

Capital of the northern kingdom

After the death of Solomon in 930 BC, the ancient kingdom of Israel was split into two. The breakaway northern section of ten tribes continued to call itself the kingdom of Israel; the southern section of two tribes became known as the kingdom of Judah. The northerners established their capital first at Shechem, then at Tirzah, but when Omri came to the throne he built a new capital at Samaria. Samaria remained the capital till the end of the northern kingdom. The town, built on a hill, had a commanding position over the surrounding plain and nearby trade routes (1 Kings 16:23-24). It was well fortified and able to withstand enemy attacks (1 Kings 20:1-21; 2 Kings 6:24-7:20). Just as Omri had made Samaria the political centre of his kingdom, so his son and successor Ahab made it the religious centre. The religion, however, was the corrupt religion of Baal imported by Ahab’s heathen wife Jezebel. Ahab built a fully equipped Baal temple in Samaria (1 Kings 16:30- 33), and although this was destroyed during Jehu’s purge, false religion was never removed from Samaria (2 Kings 10:25-31; Jer 23:13). Israel’s idolatry was the reason why God finally allowed the kingdom to be destroyed. In 722 BC the Assyrians captured Samaria, slaughtered the people, and carried off most of the survivors into foreign captivity (2 Kings 17:1-18).

Samaritans: a new people and a new religion

In keeping with their usual policy, the Assyrians resettled people from other parts of their empire into Samaria and other cities of the former northern kingdom (2 Kings 17:24). These people tried to avoid punishment from Israel’s God by combining the worship of Yahweh with their own religious practices. They also intermarried with the Israelite people left in the land, producing a new racial group known as the Samaritans (2 Kings 17:25-33). Because Samaritans were of mixed blood and mixed religion, tension arose between them and true Jews (cf. John 4:9). Succeeding Assyrian kings transported additional foreigners into Samaria (Ezra 4:2,9-10).

Assyria itself was conquered by Babylon in 612 BC. During the years 606-587 BC, the Babylonians conquered the southern kingdom Judah and took its people into captivity. In 539 BC Persia conquered Babylon and allowed the captive Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple and city. By this time, as a result of Assyria’s resettlement policy, the Samaritans were well established in the land. When they offered to help the Jews, the Jewish leaders rejected them, fearing they might introduce corrupt ideas into the Jewish religion (Ezra 4:1-3). The Samaritans reacted bitterly, and opposed the Jews throughout their building program (Ezra 4:4-24; Neh 4:1-23). When, despite years of Samaritan opposition, the Jews completed their building program, the Samaritan leaders changed their tactics. By cunning and deceit some of them worked themselves into places of influence in Jerusalem.

They corrupted the religion, defiled the temple and persuaded Jews and Samaritans to intermarry. Finally, in a sweeping reform, the Jerusalem governor Nehemiah drove those who were not true Jews out of the city (Neh 13:1-9,23-31). The Samaritans then decided to show their opposition to the Jews and Jerusalem by establishing Mt Gerizim, beside the town of Shechem, as their national place of worship. Later they built a temple there. This only increased the hatred between Jews and Samaritans. In using the five books of Moses to defend their beliefs and practices, the Samaritans became so extreme that they almost refused to accept the remaining books of the Old Testament as having any authority. Their chief beliefs were that there was one God, Moses was his only prophet, Moses’ law was the only valid teaching, and the temple on Mt Gerizim was the only legitimate place of worship (Deut 27:12; John 4:9,20). Today, near what used to be the town of Shechem, there is a small community that follows the ancient Samaritan religion.

Samaria in the New Testament

In New Testament times people commonly thought of Palestine as being divided into three regions: Judea in the south, Samaria in the centre and Galilee in the north. Under the Romans, Judea and Samaria were often grouped together. The centre of administration for the region was Caesarea, a city built on the coast by Herod the Great (Luke 3:1; Acts 1:8; 23:33). Herod also built a city on the site of ancient Samaria and named it Sebaste. On one occasion when Jesus passed through Samaria, he spent two days preaching at Sychar (near Shechem) and many Samaritans believed (John 4:3- 5,39-41). On another occasion people of a Samaritan village showed the traditional Samaritan hatred for Jews by refusing to receive Jesus in their village (Luke 9:51-53). But not all Samaritans were unfriendly. Jesus told stories about Samaritans who were kind and thankful, which was in contrast to the unloving and ungrateful attitude of many of the Jews (Luke 10:30- 37; 17:11-18). After his resurrection Jesus commanded the Christians to take the gospel to Samaria, something that Philip and others did with great success (Acts 1:8; 8:1,4-6,25; 9:31; 15:3).

SAMSON

In the days between Israel’s entrance into Canaan and the establishment of the kingdom, the Israelites were often oppressed by other peoples of the region. During one period, when the Philistines dominated them for forty years, the people had become so crushed that they had no more desire to fight. It was easier to accept the hardship of Philistine rule than to try to overthrow it (Judg 15:11-13). The man whom God raised up to stir the Israelites from this apathy was Samson. He began the revolt that would eventually lead to the overthrow of the Philistines (Judg 13:5b). As a person dedicated to God according to the conditions of the Nazirite vow, Samson was not to drink wine, cut his hair or touch any dead body (Judg 13:5; cf. Num 6:2-8). Although he carried out mighty deeds through the special power of God’s Spirit upon him (Judg 13:25; 14:6,19; 15:14), he was not careful to maintain his Nazirite dedication to God (Judg 14:8-9). When, towards the end of his life, he allowed the removal of the last symbol of this dedication (his uncut hair), God withdrew his divine power from him (Judg 16:19-20).

Samson had to fight his battles against the Philistines virtually unaided by his fellow Israelites. While they were complacent, he was looking for ways of unsettling the enemy. He lost no opportunity of doing as much damage as he could (Judg 14:4). When, for example, the Philistines won a bet against him through cheating, Samson killed thirty of their citizens (Judg 14:18-19). When his wife was given to another man, Samson burnt the Philistines’ fields (Judg 15:1-5). In retaliation for their murder of his wife and father-in-law, Samson killed more Philistines (Judg 15:6-8). When the Philistines made an attack on the town where he was staying in an attempt to capture him, he killed another thousand of them (Judg 15:15). Samson became known as one of the judges of Israel.

He was a judge not in the sense that he settled legal disputes, but in the sense that he executed judgments on the oppressors of God’s people. His remarkable attacks, spread over twenty years, began the deliverance that David eventually achieved many years later (Judg 13:5b; 15:20; 2 Sam 8:1,11-12). His greatest triumph was on the day of his death when, through faith in the power of God, he killed all the Philistine rulers along with three thousand of their leading people (Judg 16:23,28,30; Heb 11:32-34). It was the turning point that gave Israel new hope.

SAMUEL

Samuel was born into a Levite family who lived at Ramah, in the tribal territory of Ephraim (1 Sam 1:19-20; 1 Chron 6:33-38). In accordance with a promise made before Samuel’s birth, his mother took him as a young child to the tabernacle at Shiloh, where she dedicated him to God for life-long service. When his parents returned home, Samuel remained at Shiloh, to be brought up by the priest Eli (1 Sam 1:24,28; 2:11). He grew up to become Eli’s helper in the duties of the tabernacle (1 Sam 2:18). By bringing God’s message of judgment to Eli, he showed that God was preparing him to be a prophet (1 Sam 3:10-18). When Eli died, Samuel succeeded him as chief administrator in Israel (1 Sam 4:18; 7:15). People everywhere acknowledged him as a prophet from God and the religious leader of the nation (1 Sam 3:20; 7:3-6; Acts 3:24; 13:20).

A national leader

There was an early indication of Samuel’s leadership role after the capture and subsequent return of the ark by the Philistines. Samuel showed his authority among his people by demanding that they get rid of their foreign gods and by leading them in prayer and confession to God (1 Sam 7:3-6). The religious life of Israel now centred on Samuel, who set up an altar of sacrifice in Ramah (for the Philistines had destroyed the tabernacle; Ps 78:60-61; Jer 7:14). The priesthood had become so corrupt that God appointed Samuel to carry out priestly duties, even though he was not from a priestly family (1 Sam 2:27- 36; 7:9; 10:8). Israel’s civil administration also centred on Samuel. He moved in an annual circuit around four major towns where he held district courts to settle disputes (1 Sam 7:15-17). As Samuel grew old, his sons took over much of the administration.

But instead of resisting the social corruption that had become widespread through the people’s disobedience to God, they contributed to it (1 Sam 8:1-3). In search for improved conditions, the people asked Samuel to bring the old system to an end and give them a king after the pattern that existed in other nations. This was not so much a rejection of Samuel as a rejection of God. The people’s troubles had come not from the system of government, but from their sins. The answer to their problems was to turn to God in a new attitude of faith and repentance, which they refused to do. Samuel warned that just as God had punished them for disobedience when they were under the judges, so he would punish them under the kings (1 Sam 8:4-22; 12:8-15). Subsequently, the people got their king, and Samuel was no longer their civil leader. But he was still their spiritual leader, and he continued to teach them and pray for them (1 Sam 12:23-25). With the corruption of the priesthood, God made increasing use of prophets, rather than priests, to speak to his people. The emotionalism of some of these prophets led to unusual behaviour at times (1 Sam 10:9-12; 19:20-24), but rather than silence the prophets, Samuel tried to redirect their spiritual zeal for the benefit of the nation. He established a school for prophets at Ramah, and others were established later at Bethel, Jericho and Gilgal (1 Sam 19:18-20; 2 Kings 2:3,5; 4:38).

Samuel and other national leaders

God revealed to Samuel that he would send to him the man whom God had chosen to be Israel’s first king. That man was Saul, whom Samuel anointed in a brief private ceremony (1 Sam 9:15-16; 10:1). Some time later, Samuel called a meeting of the family and tribal leaders of Israel for a public selection of Israel’s first king. Saul was chosen (1 Sam 10:17-25) and, after leading Israel to victory in his first battle, was crowned king in a national ceremony at Gilgal (1 Sam 11:12-15). In time of approaching war, Saul was given one week during which Israel’s leaders could gather the army together, and he himself could go to Gilgal to consult Samuel. There Samuel would offer sacrifices and pass on God’s instructions (1 Sam 10:8).

Saul was impatient and wanted complete power, religious as well as political. He therefore did not wait for Samuel but offered the sacrifices himself. Samuel announced that in judgment God would take the kingdom from Saul (1 Sam 13:8-14). He confirmed this judgment on a later occasion when Saul again disobeyed God (1 Sam 15:1-3,13-28). God then sent Samuel to choose a person who would one day replace Saul as king. The person he chose was David (1 Sam 16:1-13). When, some years later, Saul became jealous of David and tried to kill him, David took refuge with Samuel. When Saul’s messengers, and then Saul himself, tried to capture David, all of them were overcome by the power of God’s Spirit, which still worked through Samuel and his followers (1 Sam 19:18-24). To the day of his death and throughout the centuries that followed, Samuel was highly respected by the people of Israel (1 Sam 25:1; Jer 15:1). Saul so respected Samuel’s power and wisdom that, after Samuel’s death, he went to a woman who consulted the spirits of the dead in order to seek Samuel’s help. But Samuel simply confirmed that God had rejected Saul and that the next day Saul would be dead (1 Sam 28:3-19).

SAMUEL, BOOKS OF

The two books of Samuel were originally one. They are part of the collection that the Hebrews referred to as the Former Prophets, that is, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. (Concerning the significance of the name ‘Former Prophets’ see PROPHECY.)

Authorship

Though the author of 1 and 2 Samuel is not named, it seems that he took much of his material from the records kept by such people as Samuel, Nathan, Gad, David and the writer of the book of Jasher (1 Sam 10:25; 2 Sam 1:18; 1 Chron 27:24; 29:29). The books of Samuel are named after the man who is the chief character at the beginning of the story and who anointed the two kings whose reigns occupy the remainder of the story. Together the two books cover about one hundred years, from the end of the period of the judges to the end of the reign of David.

Religious purpose

The books of Samuel show how Israel’s political life developed from the simple and often disorderly arrangement that existed in the time of the judges to an established hereditary monarchy. When Samuel succeeded Eli as judge over Israel, the nation’s life was following the same pattern as illustrated in the book of Judges, with the people turning away from God and falling under foreign domination (1 Sam 3:11-13; 4:10-11). When, in response to Samuel’s preaching, the people returned to God, God saved them (1 Sam 7:3-6,13,15-17). When Samuel became old and could no longer exercise full control over the nation, troubles returned. In a desire for stability, the people asked for a monarchy like that of other nations. But Israel’s problems came from the people’s sins, not from the system of government. Therefore, Samuel warned that although they would have their wish and be given a king, they would still be punished if they disobeyed God. As it had been under the judges, so it would be under the kings (1 Sam 12:9-15). Israel’s first king, Saul, was similar to the judges in that the special power of God’s Spirit came upon him in certain national crises (1 Sam 11:6-11). But because of his rebellion against God, God took this power from him and gave it to David (1 Sam 15:23; 16:13-14). David was the last of the Spirit-gifted leaders and the first of the hereditary kings. The people had wanted a system of government where the rule would pass from father to son without any need for God to act supernaturally through selected men. Now they had it.

With David a new era began, and the rest of the story deals with his reign. It demonstrates the truth of Samuel’s earlier assertion that national stability would be achieved by devotion to God rather than by a change in the form of government. Saul’s reign was characterized by weakness and conflict, David’s by strength and prosperity. The difference was not because of the monarchy as an institution, but because of David’s submission to God and his desire to carry out God’s will (Ps 89:19-37; Acts 13:22). The books of Samuel are not so much concerned with systems of government as with obedience to God. Their purpose is not just to record historical events, but to show how God was working in the lives of his people. Contents of 1 Samuel The first seven chapters of 1 Samuel are concerned with Israel during the period when Eli, and then Samuel, were judges. By means of a lengthy story, the writer points out the significance of the birth of Samuel (1:1-2:11) in view of the judgment that was about to fall on Eli and his family (2:12-3:21). Israel, because of its sin, suffered God’s judgment when the Philistines captured the ark (4:1-22), but the ark returned (5:1- 7:1), Israel repented and the nation won a notable victory (7:2-17). In their desire for greater national stability, the people of Israel asked for a king. Samuel told them that in acting like this they were rejecting God, but the people remained unmoved (8:1-22).

God told Samuel to anoint Saul as king (9:1-10:16), and this private anointing was followed by Saul’s public appointment to office (10:17-27). With a spectacular victory over the Ammonites, Saul soon became a popular hero (11:1-15), and Samuel retired from the national leadership (12:1-25). Saul had other notable victories, firstly over the Philistines (13:1-14:52), and then over the Amalekites (15:1-35), but in both cases his disobedience to God showed he was not fit to rule over God’s people. David was the man God chose to succeed Saul as king (16:1-23). He won fame through his victory over Goliath (17:1-58), and after further outstanding victories he was rapidly promoted in the Israelite army. His successes, however, stirred up Saul’s jealousy, resulting in various attempts by Saul to kill him (18:1-19:24). David was forced to flee from Saul to save his life (20:1-21:15). Soon he was joined by hundreds of others who were discontented because of the injustices of Saul’s rule (22:1-23). Yet in spite of Saul’s unjust pursuit of him, David refused to attack his king (23:1-25:44). At one stage David looked for refuge in enemy Philistia (26:1-27:12), and even set out with the Philistines when they were going to fight with Israel. The Philistine leaders refused to accept him and sent him back (28:1-29:11). The result was that instead of fighting against Israel, David had a rewarding victory over some Amalekites who had been raiding in southern Israel (30:1-31). Meanwhile in the north the Philistines defeated Israel, and Saul was killed in battle (31:1-13).

Contents of 2 Samuel

David was made king in place of Saul, but some of Saul’s followers refused to accept David. They made one of Saul’s sons king, and fighting soon broke out between the two factions (1:1-3:1). After two years, Saul’s faction was overthrown and David was the undisputed king (3:2-4:12). In an effort to unite all Israel, David conquered Jerusalem (which had been under the control of nonIsraelite people) and made it the new national capital (5:1-25). Determined to restore the true worship of God to its rightful place in the centre of the nation’s life, he brought the ark to Jerusalem (6:1-23). In response to David’s request to build God a permanent dwelling place, God promised David something more important, a lasting dynasty (7:1-29).

David won many battles (8:1-10:19), but he brought trouble upon himself through some foolish actions in which he was guilty of sexual immorality and murder (11:1-12:31). His own household was in turn torn apart by sexual immorality and murder (13:1-14:33), and his son Absalom overthrew him and seized the throne (15:1-16:23). War followed between Absalom and David, with the result that Absalom was killed (17:1-19:8). David then returned to Jerusalem to be re-established as king (19:9-43). Not long after, he had to deal with another revolt, but this time success came to him more swiftly (20:1-26). The final four chapters form an appendix of miscellaneous matters. Various short stories indicate some of the difficult decisions that David at times faced (21:1-22). A lengthy psalm celebrates his victories over his enemies (22:1-51), and a shorter one speaks of the blessings that a God-fearing king brings to his people (23:1-7). After listing David’s mighty men (23:8-39), the appendix closes with the story of a disastrous census that David once carried out (24:1-25).

SANCTIFICATION

The connection between sanctification and holiness is clearer in the original languages of the Bible than in the English of today. In Hebrew and Greek, the two words share the same root. To sanctify means to declare, acknowledge as, or make holy.

In the Old Testament

To Israelites of Old Testament times, the basic meaning of holiness was not a condition of moral purity, but a state of being different or separate from the common things of life. God was holy (Exod 15:11-12), and so were people and things set apart for him (Exod 19:6; 29:29,31; 30:25; Lev 27:30,33; Num 5:17). To sanctify a person or thing meant to separate it from the common affairs of life and consecrate it wholly to God (Exod 13:2; 19:10,23; 29:37,44; Lev 27:21). Since sanctification meant separation from common use for God’s use, sanctification soon included in it those ideas of moral purity that we today more commonly associate with the word. Both Old and New Testament writers emphasized that formal sanctification was of value only when it was accompanied by practical sanctification (2 Chron 29:15-16,34; 30:15,17; Rom 6:19,22). (For a fuller discussion on the biblical ideas of holiness see HOLINESS.)

In the New Testament

The New Testament speaks about the relationship aspect of sanctification (setting a person or thing apart for God) and the moral aspect (living an upright life). Jesus Christ was sanctified in both aspects. He was wholly consecrated to God (John 17:19; Acts 3:14) and he was morally perfect in his life (Heb 7:26; 1 Peter 2:22). Although their experience differs from Christ’s, Christians also may be spoken of as sanctified in the two senses we have been considering. In both cases Christ is the means of their sanctification. Firstly, through Christ’s death believers are brought into a right relationship with God (1 Cor 1:30; Heb 10:10). God is the one who sanctifies them, as he cleanses them of their sin and declares them holy and righteous in his sight (2 Thess 2:13; Heb 2:12; 10:14-17; 1 Peter 1:2). In this sense, sanctification is another way of looking at the truth that is expressed in justification (1 Cor 6:11; see JUSTIFICATION). Believers are ‘saints’, meaning ‘the sanctified ones’.

They are ‘God’s holy people’ (Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:2; Eph 1:1). Secondly, sanctification means that Christians are to have a moral and spiritual change in their lives. God has declared them holy (because of what Christ has done on their behalf) and they must now make that true in practice. They are sanctified; now they must be sanctified (Rom 6:8-11,19-22; 1 Thess 4:3; 5:23; Heb 12:14). This will involve a battle with the old sinful nature (the flesh), but through the power of the living Christ within, they can have victory over the flesh and be progressively changed into the likeness of Christ (Rom 8:9-12; 12:1-2; Col 3:9-10,12; 1 Peter 1:14-15). There are two other uses of the word ‘sanctify’ that should be noted. In the first, people are said to sanctify God when they acknowledge his holiness and reverence him as Lord (Num 20:12; Isa 8:13; 29:23; 1 Peter 3:15). In the second, God is said to sanctify the unbelieving husband whose wife has become a Christian. This does not mean that God makes the man into a Christian, but that he accepts the man as part of an equal marriage. God considers the marriage to be holy on account of the believing partner; it is a lawful union (1 Cor 7:14).

SANCTUARY

A sanctuary was a sanctified place, a place set apart for God and therefore considered to be holy (see SANCTIFICATION). Heaven, being God’s dwelling place, could be called God’s sanctuary (Ps 102:19; 150:1). Usually, however, the sanctuary referred to God’s earthly dwelling place, the tabernacle, and later the temple (Exod 25:8; 1 Chron 28:10; Ps 68:24-26; see TABERNACLE; TEMPLE). The inner shrine, or Most Holy Place, was in particular known as the sanctuary; for there, over the ark of the covenant, God symbolically dwelt (Lev 4:6; Ps 96:6; Heb 13:11). Since Israel trusted in God and God dwelt in the sanctuary, to trust in God was to trust in the sanctuary. A sanctuary therefore came to have a secondary meaning as a place of refuge (Isa 8:14; Ezek 11:16; cf. Exod 21:12-14; 1 Kings 2:29; Num 35:6; see CITY OF REFUGE). Other gods had their sanctuaries also. These were usually places where altars had been set up for the worship of false gods. The Baal sanctuaries, which Israelites often took over and used in their own form of false worship, were known as high places (Amos 7:9; see BAAL).

SANHEDRIN

With the re-establishment of the Jewish nation after the Jews’ return from captivity in Babylon, there were significant developments in the Jewish religion. Many of these were connected with the establishment of synagogues (or meeting places) in the Jewish communities, and the rise of people known as scribes (or teachers of the law). The scribes usually had positions of power in the synagogues and used them as places from which to spread their teachings (see SCRIBES; SYNAGOGUE). Under Ezra groups of elders and judges had been appointed to administer civil and religious law in Israel (Ezra 7:25-26; 10:14). It was probably on this basis that such people became leaders of the synagogues and rulers in the Jewish communities.

As the scribes and other leaders on the synagogue committees grew in power, a system of local Jewish rule developed that eventually produced a council known as the Sanhedrin. Although any local Jewish council may have been called a Sanhedrin, the word was used most commonly for the supreme Jewish council in Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Sanhedrin consisted of a maximum of seventy members, not counting the high priest. (The number was probably based on the ancient arrangement by which Moses and seventy elders administered Israel; see Num 11:24.) The composition of the Sanhedrin changed from time to time, depending on political developments within the nation. In New Testament times it consisted of scribes, elders, priests and other respected citizens, and included both Pharisees and Sadducees. The high priest acted as president (Matt 26:3,57-59; Luke 22:66; 23:50; Acts 4:5-7; 5:17-21,34; 22:30; 23:1-6). Any meeting of the Sanhedrin required at least twenty-three members to be present. Rome gave the Sanhedrin authority to arrest, judge and punish Jewish people for offences relating to their religious law and for certain civil offences (Mark 14:43; Acts 5:17-21,40; 6:11-15; 9:2). The one exception concerned the death sentence. Although it could pass the death sentence, the Sanhedrin could not carry it out without permission from Rome (Matt 26:66; 27:1-2; John 18:30-31). From details of Sanhedrin procedures recorded in ancient Jewish writings, it is clear that Jesus’ trial, conviction and execution were illegal. The Jews’ execution of Stephen was also illegal, but the Roman authorities probably considered it safer to ignore the incident and so avoid trouble with the Jews (Acts 7:57-58; cf. 18:14-17; Matt 27:24).

SARAH

At the time of her marriage to Abraham in Mesopotamia, Sarah’s name was Sarai and Abraham’s was Abram. God gave them their new names (Abraham meaning ‘father of a multitude’, Sarah meaning ‘princess’) to confirm to them that they would be the parents of a multitude of people, the nation Israel (Gen 11:29; 17:5-6,15-16; Isa 51:2). From Mesopotamia God directed Abraham and Sarah into Canaan, the land that he promised would be Israel’s eventual homeland (Gen 12:1,5-8). Abraham accepted God’s promise by faith and, because of this, God accepted him as righteous (Gen 15:6). (For details of the New Testament teaching on faith in the lives of Abraham and Sarah see ABRAHAM.) However, Abraham’s faith failed on occasions. Twice he deceived people by saying Sarah was his sister.

This was partly true, as Sarah was a daughter of his father by a different wife; but it was wrong to tell only part of the truth in order to deceive (Gen 12:18-20; 20:11-12). God had promised that Abraham and Sarah, in spite of their many years without children, would in due course produce a son through whom God’s promises would be fulfilled. The older they grew, the less likely it seemed that Sarah would bear a child, so Sarah suggested that Abraham obtain the desired son through their slave-girl, Hagar. A son was born, but God said it was not the child he had promised (Gen 16:1-4,15; 17:18-19). Sarah found it difficult to believe that a woman as old as she could bear a son, and therefore God sent special heavenly messengers to convince her.

Sarah had to share Abraham’s faith (Gen 18:10-14). The next year, when Abraham was about a hundred years old and Sarah about ninety, Sarah gave birth to Isaac, the son whom God had promised (Gen 17:17,19,21; 21:1-5). The faith of Abraham and Sarah had been tested constantly for twenty-five years (cf. Gen 12:4), and had shown itself to be genuine and enduring (Rom 4:17-21; Heb 11:11-12). Earlier there had been friction between Sarah and Hagar (Gen 16:4-9). When it appeared again, Sarah said to Abraham that he should drive out Hagar and her son from the household (Gen 21:10). Although Sarah respected Abraham as head of the household, she also had a role in family decisions, and in this case God told Abraham to do as Sarah suggested (Gen 21:12; cf. 1 Peter 3:6). Isaac alone was to be heir to the promises God gave concerning his chosen land and people. Sarah lived to see her son grow into a mature and responsible leader. He was about thirty-seven years old when Sarah died (Gen 23:1,19).

SARDIS

The only biblical mention of the church in the town of Sardis is as the recipient of one of the letters that John sent to seven churches in the province of Asia (for map see ASIA). Nothing is known of the church apart from what is found in this letter. So much had the church in Sardis followed the ways of the society around it, that it was Christian in name only. Spiritually it was dead. Unless the Christians woke up and changed their ways, God would act against them in swift judgment. There were some, however, who proved the genuineness of their faith by refusing to alter their behaviour to suit the majority. Such people were assured of God’s reward (Rev 3:1- 6).

SATAN

Among the angelic spirits of the unseen world there are those that are evil, though the Bible nowhere records how they fell into such a condition. The chief of these evil angelic spirits is one known as the adversary – the adversary of God, his people, and all that is good. The Hebrew word for ‘adversary’ is satan, which later became the name used in the Bible for this leader of evil (Job 1:6). He is also called the devil (Matt 4:1-12; 1 John 3:8; Rev 12:9), the prince of demons (Matt 9:34; 12:24; see also BEELZEBUL), the prince of this world (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11), the god of this world (2 Cor 4:4), the prince of the power of the air (Eph 2:2), the evil one (Matt 13:19; Eph 6:16; 1 John 2:13; 3:12) and the accuser of the brethren (Rev 12:10; cf. Job 1:6-12; Zech 3:1).

God’s rebellious servant We should not think that Satan is in some way the equal of God, one being a good God and the other an evil God. God alone is God (Isa 44:6). Satan is no more than an angelic being created by God. There are good angels and evil angels, Satan being chief of the evil ones (Matt 25:31,41; Eph 6:12; Jude 9; Rev 12:7-9; see ANGELS; DEMONS). God, however, is above all and over all. Also there are not, as it were, two kingdoms, a kingdom of good where God is absolute ruler and a kingdom of evil where Satan is absolute ruler. Satan is not a sovereign ruler but a rebel. Like all created beings, he is under the rule and authority of God and he can do his evil work only within the limits God allows (Job 1:12; 2:6; cf. Rev 20:2-3; 20:7-8). He is still the servant of God, even though a rebellious one (Job 1:6-7; 2:1-2; Zech 3:1-2). In spite of the evil he loves to do, he is still fulfilling God’s purposes, even though unwillingly (Job 1:9-12; 1 Kings 22:19-23; cf. John 13:2,27; Acts 2:23; 1 Cor 5:5; 2 Cor 12:7; 1 Tim 1:20). This does not mean that God tempts people to do evil. It is Satan, not God, who is the tempter (Gen 3:1-6; 1 Chron 21:1; Matt 4:1-11; 1 Cor 7:5; James 1:13). God desires rather to save people from evil (Matt 6:13; 1 Cor 10:13).

Yet God allows them to suffer the troubles and temptations that Satan brings in life, for through such things he tests and strengthens their faith (James 1:2-3,12; cf. Heb 2:18; 5:8-9; see TEMPTATION; TESTING). Satan is hostile to God and fights against God’s purposes (Matt 4:1-12; Mark 8:31-33). But in the long run Satan cannot be successful, because Jesus Christ, by his life, death and resurrection, has conquered him and delivered believers from his power (Matt 12:28-29; Luke 10:18; John 12:31; 16:11; Acts 26:18; Col 2:15; Heb 2:14-15; 1 John 3:8). (Concerning Jesus Christ’s conquest of Satan see KINGDOM OF GOD.) Enemy of the human race Although Jesus has conquered Satan, the world at present sees neither Jesus’ conquest nor Satan’s defeat. God allows evil angels to continue to exist just as he allows evil people.

He has condemned them but not yet destroyed them. The world will see Jesus’ conquest and Satan’s defeat in the great events at the end of the age, when Christ returns in power and glory (Rev 20:10). In the meantime Satan continues to operate (Matt 13:24-26,37-39). He opposes all that is good and encourages all that is evil. At times he works with brutality and ferocity (1 Peter 5:8; Rev 2:10), at other times with cunning and deceit (2 Cor 2:11; 11:14; 1 Tim 3:7). He works not only through people who are obviously evil (Acts 13:8-10; Eph 2:1-3; 1 John 3:10,12; Rev 2:13), but also through those who appear to be good (Mark 8:33; John 8:44; Acts 5:3; Rev 2:9; 3:9). Satan causes people physical suffering through disease (Luke 13:16; 2 Cor 12:7; see DISEASE), and evil spirits (Mark 3:20-27; 7:25; Acts 10:38; see MAGIC; UNCLEAN SPIRITS). He brings mental and spiritual suffering through the cunning of his deceit and temptations (1 Cor 7:5; 2 Thess 2:9-10: 2 Tim 2:24-26). Above all, he wants to prevent people from understanding and believing the gospel (Matt 13:19; 2 Cor 4:4). Christians, because they have declared themselves on the side of God, may at times experience Satan’s attacks more than others. They have a constant battle against Satan, but they do not fight entirely by their own strength. Certainly, they must make every effort to resist Satan and avoid doing those things that will give Satan an opportunity to tempt them (Eph 4:27; James 4:7), but God gives Christians the necessary armour to withstand Satan’s attacks (Eph 6:11-13). Just as Satan opposed Jesus in his ministry, so he will oppose Jesus’ followers in their ministry (John 8:42-44; Acts 13:10; 1 Thess 2:18). But through the victory of Jesus, they too can have victory (Luke 10:17-18; 22:31-32; Rev 12:10-11).

SAUL OF TARSUS

See PAUL.

SAUL, KING OF ISRAEL

After Israel’s demand to have a king as the other nations, God directed Samuel to Saul. At his first meeting with Saul, Samuel showed him privately that he was to be king (1 Sam 9:1-10:1). Later, at a gathering of representative family heads from all Israel, Saul was publicly chosen to be king (1 Sam 10:17-24). An official crowning ceremony followed in due course (1 Sam 11:14-15).

Victories and failures

Of the three signs that Samuel had announced to Saul as confirmation of the promised kingship, the most important was the coming of God’s Spirit upon him (1 Sam 10:1-8). This changed Saul from an ordinary farmer into a national leader (1 Sam 10:9-13). Because certain people doubted Saul’s suitability, he made no immediate change in the country’s administration, but returned to his home in Gibeah (1 Sam 10:25-27). After leading Israel to victory in his first battle, he won the support of the whole nation (1 Sam 11:1-15).

Saul was to be under the spiritual direction of Samuel. But Saul wanted complete power, religious as well as political. Therefore, when a suitable occasion arose he rebelled against the limitation that God had placed on his authority. In punishment God announced that one day he would take the kingdom from Saul and give it to another (1 Sam 13:1-14). God confirmed this judgment on a later occasion when Saul again deliberately disobeyed his instructions through Samuel (1 Sam 15:1-34). After this, Saul never saw Samuel again (1 Sam 15:35). Without Samuel’s guidance, his rule from that time on was disastrous. When, at the end of his reign, he made a desperate attempt to consult the spirit of the dead Samuel, he merely received further confirmation of God’s judgment upon him (1 Sam 28:3-19). (For details of events in this period of Saul’s life see SAMUEL.) Although Saul was at times calm and tolerant (1 Sam 10:27; 11:12-13), at other times he was rash and unpredictable (1 Sam 14:24-30,38-45; 18:10-11). Nevertheless, he brought stability and security to Israel through victories over all those nations that had previously attacked around Israel’s borders (1 Sam 14:47-48; 15:7; 17:52-53).

Saul and David

God chose David as the man who would one day replace Saul as king. As David grew in experience and maturity, the special power of God’s Spirit began to work through him rather than Saul (1 Sam 16:13- 14). After David’s victory over Goliath, Saul, unaware of God’s purposes for David, made him his armour-bearer and full-time court musician (1 Sam 16:21-23; 18:2). Over the next few years Saul became more and more unstable, emotionally and mentally, while David became a popular hero through his military victories. Saul became suspicious that David might be the man to replace him, and in a fit of jealousy tried to kill him (1 Sam 18:5-11).

This began a long conflict between Saul and David. Saul tried by every possible means to get rid of David, but David steadfastly refused to do anything against Saul. Saul sent David on dangerous missions, hoping he might get killed, but his plans repeatedly failed (1 Sam 18:13-17,25). He sent his servants to kill David, and he himself tried to spear him, but all his efforts were without success (1 Sam 19:1,10-11). When David sought safety with Samuel, Saul and his servants pursued him, but the Spirit of God protected David by overpowering Saul and his men (1 Sam 19:18-24). Year after year the chase went on. The mad Saul slaughtered any he thought had helped David (1 Sam 22:18-19), whereas David on two occasions spared Saul’s life when he could easily have killed him (1 Sam 24:1-22; 26:6-25). (For details of events in this period of Saul’s life see DAVID.) Saul’s tragic life came to an end during a battle with the Philistines on Mt Gilboa. When wounded in the fighting, he took his own life rather than allow himself to be captured and shamefully treated by his enemies (1 Sam 31:1-4). Loyal Israelites gave him an honourable burial (1 Sam 31:8-13), and David wrote a song in memory of him. The song also honoured Saul’s son Jonathan, who died in the same battle (2 Sam 1:17-27).

SCRIBES

In the days before mechanical printing, copies of documents, letters, government records and sacred writings were handwritten by skilled secretaries known as scribes (1 Kings 4:3; 2 Kings 18:18; 22:8; Jer 8:8; 38:18,26-27). The religious importance of scribes developed during the period that followed the Jews’ return from captivity in 538 BC and the subsequent reconstruction of the Jewish nation. During the captivity there had been a renewal of interest in the law of Moses, and this increased after the return to Jerusalem. The result was a greater demand for copies of the law, and consequently greater prominence for the scribes (Neh 8:1-4,8; 9:3). Because scribes had developed special skills in copying the details of the law exactly, people regarded them as experts on matters of the law (Ezra 7:6,10). Although the priests were supposed to be the teachers in Israel (Deut 33:10; Mal 2:7), people now went to the scribes, rather than the priests, when they had problems of the law that they wanted explained. During the centuries immediately before the Christian era, the scribes grew in power and prestige, and were the chiefly cause of the striking changes that came over the Jewish religion. They were also known as teachers of the law, lawyers and rabbis (Matt 22:35; 23:2-7).

Power of the scribes

The increased interest in the law produced not only the scribes as a class of teachers, but also the synagogues as places of worship (see SYNAGOGUE). The scribes developed the structure for synagogue meetings, and controlled the synagogue teaching Matt 23:2,6; Luke 6:6-7; 20:46). They also developed and promoted the midrash as a form of teaching. (A midrash was an explanation of the ‘deeper meaning’ of a portion of Scripture, or in some cases a practical sermon based on a portion of Scripture.) There was, however, a great difference between Ezra’s explanations of the law and the expositions of the scribes of Jesus’ time. Over the intervening centuries, the scribes had produced a system of their own, which consisted of countless laws to surround the central law of Moses. These new laws may have grown out of legal cases that the scribes had judged or traditions that had been handed down. The scribes then forced the Jewish people to obey these laws, till the whole lawkeeping system became a heavy burden (Matt 15:1-9; 23:2-4; see TRADITION). As leaders in the synagogue and teachers of the people, the scribes enjoyed a respected status in the Jewish community (Matt 23:6-7). Some were members of the Sanhedrin, the supreme Jewish Council (Matt 26:57; see SANHEDRIN). In addition to controlling the synagogues, the scribes taught in the temple and established schools for the training of their disciples (Luke 2:46; Acts 22:3). They then sent these disciples to spread their teaching, till it became the chief force in the religious life of Israel (Matt 23:15). Most of the scribes belonged to the party of the Pharisees (one of two major groups within Judaism; see PHARISEES; SADDUCEES), and are often linked with them in the biblical narratives (Matt 5:20; 12:38; 15:1; 23:2; Acts 5:34; 22:3). They opposed Jesus throughout his ministry, helped to crucify him, and later persecuted his followers (Matt 16:21; 21:15; 26:57; Acts 4:5-7; 6:12).

Later influences

With the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, the Jewish temple rituals ceased; but the influence of the scribes lived on. By AD 200, the scribes (now better known as rabbis) had put into writing the oral traditions that earlier scribes had built up around the law. This document was called the Mishnah. After the completion of the Mishnah, the rabbis added to it their own commentary. This commentary was put into writing between AD 400 and 500, and was known as the Gemara. The Mishnah and the Gemara together made up the Talmud, which has remained the authoritative law for orthodox Jews ever since.

SCRIPTURES

Jews of New Testament times had a collection of sacred writings (now known as the Old Testament) which they referred to as the Scriptures. That is, they believed these writings originated with God and, although written by ordinary people, carried with them the absolute authority of God (Matt 21:42; 22:29; Luke 4:21; 24:27; John 5:39; 10:35; Acts 8:32; Rom 1:2; 4:3; 2 Tim 3:15-16; see INSPIRATION). During the time of the early church, Christians recognized the writings of Jesus’ apostles and other leading Christians also as Scripture, and therefore as having equal authority with the Old Testament writings (1 Cor 14:37; 1 Tim 5:18; 2 Peter 3:16; see CANON).

Unity of the Scriptures

It is possible to become a Christian through only a very small portion of the Scriptures, but to grow as a Christian requires much more. If Christians want to know more about the character of God and the kind of life that God requires of his people, they will need all God’s Word, both Old Testament and New (see INTERPRETATION). A better translation of the word ‘testament’ is ‘covenant’. (For the biblical meaning of this word see COVENANT.) The Old and New Testaments are the books of the old and new covenants. The Old Testament shows how, under the old covenant, God chose the nation Israel as his people, and prepared it to be the channel through which he would provide a saviour for the world. The New Testament shows that this saviour, Jesus Christ, fulfilled the old covenant, then established a new covenant, by which people of all nations become God’s people through faith.

There is, therefore, an underlying unity to the Scriptures. The Bible is one unbroken story that shows how human beings have rebelled against God, and how God in his grace has provided them with a way of salvation. Readers can understand the New Testament properly only if they understand the Old; and when they understand the New Testament, the Old will have more meaning. (Concerning the New Testament writers’ use of Old Testament passages see QUOTATIONS.) Sixty-six books make up the Bible. These were written over a period of perhaps 1400 years by a total of about forty writers. The writers were people of different nationalities, languages, occupations and temperaments, yet there is complete harmony within the Bible. Jesus considered the Bible of his time a unity and referred to it in the singular as ‘the Scripture’ (John 10:35). (Concerning the preparation of books and manuscripts in ancient times see MANUSCRIPTS; WRITING.)

Divisions of the Scriptures

Jews divided their Scriptures (our Old Testament) into three parts, which they called the Law, the Prophets and the Writings. Often they referred to the Writings as the Psalms, since Psalms was the largest, and possibly the first, book in the Writings (Luke 24:44). They often referred to the Scriptures in general simply as the Law (John 10:34; 1 Cor 14:21) or the Law and the Prophets (Matt 7:12; 22:40; Luke 16:16). The Law consisted of the first five books of the Bible, commonly called the books of Moses (Mark 12:26; Acts 15:21; see PENTATEUCH). The Prophets consisted of the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the twelve so-called Minor Prophets) (see PROPHECY).

The Writings consisted of Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles. This arrangement of books is indicated by Jesus’ reference to the first and last martyrs mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Matt 23:35; cf. Gen 4:8; 2 Chron 24:20-21). (For a book-by-book summary of the Bible’s contents see BIBLE.) Although there were no fixed divisions in the New Testament, the books may be conveniently grouped into three categories: the narrative books (the Four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles), the letters (of Paul and of others), and the book of Revelation. Names given to the books of the Bible are not part of the inspired writings, but have either established themselves by tradition or been given by translators. The names of some Old Testament books in the Christian Bible differ from those in the Hebrew Bible. The order in which the books are arranged, whether in the Old Testament or the New, is simply the result of established practice and carries no divine authority. Also, the original writings were not divided into the chapters and verses that we are familiar with today. The chapter divisions were made in the thirteenth century AD, and the verse divisions in the sixteenth century.

SEA OF GALILEE

The Sea of Galilee is a freshwater lake in northern Palestine. It is approximately twenty kilometres long, twelve kilometres wide, and about two hundred metres below sea level. In Bible times it was known also as the Sea of Chinnereth (Num 34:11), the Lake of Gennesaret (Luke 5:1) and the Sea of Tiberias (John 6:1,16-25; 21:1). (For details see PALESTINE, sub-heading ‘Upper Jordan and Sea of Galilee’.)

SECOND COMING

See JESUS CHRIST, sub-heading ‘Christ’s return and final triumph’. See also DAY OF THE LORD; ESCHATOLOGY; JUDGMENT; KINGDOM OF GOD; MILLENNIUM; RESURRECTION.

SEIR

Mount Seir was the chief mountain of the land of Edom. In common usage its name sometimes referred to the nation of Edom in general (Deut 2:1,4,12). (For details see EDOM.)

SELF-DISCIPLINE

Although Christians are not under the law, they are under grace (Rom 6:14). Although they are not slaves to sin, they are slaves to righteousness (Rom 6:17-18). Although they are free from the law, they are not free to do as they please; they must live to please God (Rom 7:4-6; Eph 5:10; Col 1:10). Therefore, they must exercise self-discipline, or self-control. This self-control is not opposed to control by the Holy Spirit. On the contrary it is a quality that the Holy Spirit produces (Gal 5:22-23). Christians must make every effort to develop self-discipline (1 Cor 9:25-27; 2 Peter 1:5-6), and this self-discipline applies to every area of their lives: thoughts (2 Cor 10:5), feelings (Lev 19:17-18; 1 Peter 2:11), speech (Ps 39:1; James 3:7-8), eating and drinking habits (Prov 23:2,20; Amos 6:4-6; Eph 5:18), sexual behaviour (1 Cor 7:9; 1 Thes 4:4-5) and in fact any situation in which they find themselves (1 Thes 5:22-23). Such personal discipline is essential in the lives of all Christians, regardless of status, sex or age (1 Tim 3:2,11; Titus 1:7-8; 2:2-6). Self-discipline is necessary not only in avoiding what is wrong, but also in refraining from actions that in themselves may not be wrong at all. In certain circumstances Christians should deny themselves lawful freedoms out of consideration for others (Rom 14:15-16,20-22; 1 Cor 8:13; 10:23-24; see also DENY).

SEPTUAGINT

After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC, the Greek language spread throughout Alexander’s empire and within a short time was the most commonly spoken language. In Alexandria in Egypt, the large Jewish population was almost entirely Greek-speaking, and for their sake the Hebrew Bible (our Old Testament) was translated into Greek. According to stories handed down by the Jews, the number of translators was about seventy. The translation was therefore called the Septuagint, meaning ‘seventy’ and abbreviated as LXX. The work was done some time during the third and second centuries BC. The quality of the translation varied, being good in some parts but poor in others. Though the Septuagint was originally prepared for orthodox Jews of the pre-Christian era, the people who benefited most from it were the early Christians. In fact, the Septuagint’s popularity with the Christians was one reason why it lost favour with the Jews. In New Testament times most of the Christians were Greek-speaking, even those of Jewish background, and the Septuagint provided them with a ready-made translation of the Old Testament in their own language. New Testament writers, in quoting from the Old Testament, usually used the Septuagint rather than translate from the Hebrew (see QUOTATIONS).

In matters concerning God and religion, the Septuagint was particularly helpful to preachers and writers of New Testament times. Greek religious words usually had meanings that related to pagan religious practices of the Greek world, and because of this the Septuagint translators chose their words carefully. Often they gave words new meaning or significance in the context of Hebrew Old Testament ideas. This is important for present-day readers of the New Testament. In their consideration of teaching concerning God and Christian belief, they should understand Greek words in relation to the Hebrew words they represent, rather than in relation to the pagan ideas of the Greeks.

SERAPHIM

It seems that seraphim (plural of seraph) are angelic beings of one of the higher heavenly orders. They appear to be similar to cherubim and, like cherubim, are heavenly guardians who serve the Almighty. In the only biblical reference to them they have a special concern for holiness and morality (Isa 6:1-7; see CHERUBIM).

SERMON ON THE MOUNT

Matthew’s Gospel is built around five main sermons or collections of teachings from Jesus. The first of these, Chapters 5-7, is known as the Sermon on the Mount, after the place where Jesus was teaching at the time (Matt 5:1). Although the section is a unified whole, many of the teachings within it occur in different settings in the other Gospels. Very likely, in view of Matthew’s style of presentation, the section contains more than the contents of a single sermon (see MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). Jesus gave the teaching primarily to his disciples (Matt 5:1-2,13-14), though, as often happened, many others gathered to listen (Matt 7:28).

Ethics of the kingdom of God

Jesus’ teaching set out for his followers the quality of life and behaviour that he required of those who entered his kingdom and came under his rule. Life in God’s kingdom is characterized by humility, love, righteousness, mercy, sincerity, and dependence on God. Unlike life in human society in general, it has no place for pride, hatred, cruelty, aggression, hypocrisy and self-sufficiency (Matt 5:3-10,48; see KINGDOM OF GOD). The Sermon on the Mount is not a new set of rules to replace the law of Moses. It does not lay down a legal code of ethics, but aims to work within people to produce a standard of behaviour that no law-code can produce, no matter how good it might be (Matt 5:17-18). The righteousness Jesus wants in his followers is more than outward conformity to certain laws (Matt 5:20). He wants a new attitude within – the principles of the law written on people’s hearts. It is not enough, for instance, just to refrain from murder; people must remove the spirit of hate and revenge from their hearts, for it is that spirit that produces murder (Matt 5:21-22; cf. Rom 8:4; Heb 8:10).

Teaching with authority

In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus did not oppose or contradict the law of Moses. Rather he opposed the traditional interpretations and false applications taught by the Jewish teachers of the law (the scribes, or rabbis). Their concern for outward correctness failed to deal with inward attitudes (Matt 5:27-30). Instead of being forgiving, the scribes used the law as an excuse for personal revenge. They took civil laws relating to penalties for crimes and applied them to personal relationships (Matt 5:38-42). They so twisted the meaning of the law that they could claim the law’s authority for actions that were clearly contrary to the law (Matt 5:31-37). They even gave their own sayings equal authority with the law (Matt 5:43-47). Jesus was opposed to this legalistic spirit. He was also opposed to the pride it produced through its concern for outward show (Matt 6:1-6,16-18). He wanted to change people in their hearts. He taught his disciples how to pray (Matt 6:7-15; 7:7-12), how to have new attitudes of trust in God for all life’s material needs (Matt 6:19-34), how to examine their attitudes (Matt 7:1-5) and how to be wise in deciding what is wholesome and what is not (Matt 7:6,15-23). Jesus’ teaching, being from God, had an authority that was lacking in the traditional teaching of the scribes (Matt 7:28-29). But if people are to benefit from it, they must not only understand it but also act upon it (Matt 7:24-27).

SERVANT

Old and New Testaments alike use the one word ‘servant’ to translate a variety of words from the original languages. In many cases the word ‘servant’ is really ‘slave’. In English ‘slaves’ and ‘servants’ suggest different classes of people, but this distinction is not so clear in the original languages. Often the words are used interchangeably. If there is a difference, it is usually one of suitability to context. ‘Slaves’ may be used of people in relation to their masters, but ‘servants’ in relation to their work. The former may be in a context of submission to a superior (e.g. Matt 6:24; Rom 6:16-18; Eph 6:6-7; see SLAVE), the latter in the context of service for others (e.g. Matt 20:28: Luke 10:40; Rom 12:7; see MINISTER).

A special kind of service

Christians are slaves of God and servants of God (1 Cor 4:1; 7:22-23).

They are not to be ashamed of these titles, as if God has denied them ordinary human dignity or reduced them to some low and humiliating status. The Bible uses many pictures to describe the relationship between Christ and his people, and each picture illustrates only one aspect of a many-sided relationship. Therefore, although Christians are sometimes called Christ’s servants, other times they are called his friends and ambassadors. Service for him is a privilege (John 15:15,20; 2 Cor 5:20). Christ himself is an example of the sort of servant a Christian should be (Luke 22:27; John 13:12-15; see SERVANT OF THE LORD). Service for God can take many forms. It may consist of giving practical aid to those who are poor, hungry, or otherwise in need (Rom 15:25; 1 Tim 5:10; 2 Tim 1:18; Heb 6:10). Some people serve God through ministries of spreading the gospel and caring for churches (Acts 6:4; 20:24; 1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 3:6; Eph 3:7; 4:11-12; Col 4:17); others serve him by praying for those engaged in such works (Rom 15:30-31; 2 Cor 1:11; Phil 1:19). The title ‘deacon’, given to certain people who have various responsibilities in the church, means ‘servant’ (Phil 1:1; 1 Tim 3:8; see DEACON).

Motives and performance

Regardless of the special ministries entrusted to certain people, all Christians are in some sense God’s servants. They have unlimited possibilities of service, and should consider that everything they do is a way of serving their Lord (Eph 6:5-8; Col 3:23). The service does not have to be in a religious setting. Christ sees everyday acts of kindness as service for him, even though the doers of those acts may not be aware of it (Matt 25:35-40). On the other hand, people may give an appearance of serving God, but if their chief concern is self-interest, they are not serving God at all (Matt 6:24). To serve Christ means to serve others (Matt 25:35-40), and those who serve others receive God’s rewards (Matt 20:25-28; 23:11-12). This does not mean that Christians serve God solely for what they can get in return. On the contrary they realize that whatever service they do is merely their duty (Luke 17:10). Yet God graciously promises to reward those who serve him faithfully (Matt 25:21; Luke 19:17; Heb 6:10; Rev 2:19,26; see REWARD).

SERVANT OF THE LORD

In a sense all God’s people are servants of the Lord (Num 12:7; Ps 105:6; 1 Cor 4:1; Rev 22:3), but the Bible speaks of one particular figure who in a special sense is the servant of the Lord (Isa 42:1; 52:13). This particular ‘servant of the Lord’ is the subject of the present article. Concerning the more general usage of the expression see SERVANT. Details about the servant of the Lord are found mainly in what are known as the four Servant Songs of Isaiah (Isa 42:1-4; 49:1-6; 50:4-9; 52:13-53:12). There is a threefold meaning to these songs. Firstly, the nation Israel was chosen to be God’s servant (Isa 41:8), but the nation as a whole was a failure (Isa 42:19). This leads to the second meaning, which is to the faithful minority within Israel.

While the rest of the people rebelled against God, the believing remnant kept serving him loyally (Isa 49:4-6; see REMNANT). Even they, however, did not experience the full blessings that God intended for his people. The third and highest meaning of the servant applies to the Messiah, Jesus (Isa 53:12; Luke 22:37; Acts 3:13; 4:30; Phil 2:7). Israel as a nation was Abraham’s natural offspring (John 8:37; Rom 4:1; 11:1), the faithful remnant were his spiritual offspring (Rom 9:6-7; Gal 3:28-29), but the Messiah Jesus was the perfect offspring. In him the purposes of God for Israel reached their fulfilment (Gal 3:16).

Four Servant Songs

The first Servant Song outlines the ideal character of God’s servant. Those ideals never became a reality for the nation Israel, and only to a limited extent did they characterize the faithful remnant. But they found their perfect expression in Jesus Christ (Isa 42:1-4; Matt 12:15-21). God had a particular task for his servant, and the second Servant Song describes that task. God’s servant was to take the light of his salvation to the Gentile nations. Again Israel as a whole failed, though some of the people were faithful (Isa 49:1-7; Acts 13:46-47). Jesus, by contrast, fulfilled the task perfectly, bringing salvation to Israel and to the Gentiles (Matt 1:21; Luke 2:32; Acts 26:23; Rom 15:8- 12). In the third Servant Song the emphasis is on the servant’s patient endurance. This had some meaning in relation to Israel’s experiences among hostile nations, and considerably more meaning in relation to the godly believers’ experiences among their ungodly fellow Israelites. The full meaning is found only in the experiences of Jesus (Isa 50:4-9; Matt 26:67; 1 Peter 2:22-24). The fourth Servant Song speaks of the servant’s suffering and glory. God punished Israel for its sins by sending the nation into captivity in Babylon, but after the removal of sin he restored the nation to its land. Israel’s sufferings at the hands of Babylon and its glory in the rebuilt Jerusalem were a picture of the sufferings of the Messiah and the glory that followed (Isa 52:13-15; Acts 2:23-24,36; Phil 2:8-11; 1 Peter 1:18-21).

Israel, God’s unfaithful servant, suffered the judgment that its sin deserved; Jesus, the faithful servant, bore a judgment that he did not deserve. The godly remnant within Israel suffered because of the sins of others, and so did Jesus; but, more than that, Jesus suffered to take away the sins of others (Isa 53:4-6; Matt 8:17; 20:28; 1 Peter 2:22-25). He bore shame and injustice at the hands of wicked men (Isa 53:3,7-8; Matt 27:26-31; Acts 8:32-35), though he did at least receive a decent burial (Isa 53:9; Matt 27:57-60). Yet through all Jesus’ experiences, God was bringing his purposes to fulfilment. Jesus’ glorious resurrection showed God’s complete satisfaction with his Son’s atoning work. It also marked the beginning of a new age in which God’s salvation goes to people throughout the world (Isa 53:10-12; Mark 10:45; Luke 24:46-47; Acts 2:23-24; 28:28; Rom 8:32-34; Rev 5:9-10).

SEVEN

One obvious feature of the Bible is the frequent occurrence of the number ‘seven’. The number seems to have been used to indicate one complete unit – fulness, completion, perfection (e.g. Gen 2:2). This unit of seven features prominently in the organization of Israel’s religious and community life. One day in seven was a holy day of rest, and this weekly unit provided the framework for various religious festivals (Exod 20:8-11; Lev 23:5-6,15,34; see SABBATH). The details of many of Israel’s rituals were based on a unit of seven (Lev 4:6; 8:33; 13:4; 14:7-8,51; 23:18). Every seventh year was a year of rest for the land and release for debtors (Lev 25:1-4; Deut 15:1-2; see SABBATICAL YEAR). The symbolic ‘seven’ gave to ordinary events a special religious significance (Josh 6:4). The expression ‘seven times’ seems to have been used as a figure of speech to indicate fulness or finality (Gen 4:15,24, Lev 26:18,21; 1 Kings 18:43-44; 2 Kings 5:10; Ps 12:6; 119:164; Isa 30:26; Dan 3:19; Matt 18:21-22; cf. Luke 8:2; 11:26; 20:29). A similar symbolic usage of the number ‘seven’ is common in the book of Revelation (Rev 1:20; 4:5; 5:1,6; 8:2; 10:3; 12:3; 13:1; 15:1).

SHALLUM

Two kings mentioned in the biblical record had the name Shallum, and each reigned for only a very short time. Shallum of Israel gained the throne through murdering the previous king, but one month later he himself was murdered (in 752 BC; 2 Kings 15:10,13-14). Shallum of Judah (who was also known as Jehoahaz) reigned only three months before Pharaoh Necho deposed him and took him captive to Egypt (in 609 BC; 2 Kings 23:30-34; Jer 22:11-12; see JEHOAHAZ). Several Old Testament characters of lesser importance also had the name Shallum.

SHARON

The thinly populated Plain of Sharon was part of Palestine’s coastal plain south of Mt Carmel. Parts of it were marshland, though other parts contained good pastures and forests (1 Chron 5:16; 27:29; Isa 35:2; see PALESTINE). Its wildflowers were typical of the Palestinian plains (Song of Songs 2:1).

SHEBA

In south-western Arabia was the land known in Bible times as Sheba. It was located in the region of present-day Yemen and was occupied by a tribal group known as the Sabeans. Like people of other Arab tribal groups, those of Sheba were merchants and traders. They travelled widely throughout the East, dealing in gold, precious stones, cloth, spices and other merchandise (1 Kings 10:1-2; Ps 72:15; Isa 60:6; Jer 6:20; Ezek 27:22). They even engaged in slave trade (Joel 3:8) and, like other Arab nomads, they raided farms and villages (Job 1:15). When their queen on one occasion visited Israel’s king Solomon, the two monarchs took the opportunity to have some useful trade exchanges (1 Kings 10:10,13). (Some African legends have connected this queen with Ethiopia.) Sheba was also the name of a number of individuals mentioned in the Old Testament. The best known of these was the Benjaminite who tried unsuccessfully to lead the northern tribes to break away from the rule of David (2 Sam 20:1-22).

SHECHEM

The ancient town of Shechem lay between Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal in central Canaan (Deut 27:12- 13; Judg 9:7). It was the first recorded camping place of Abraham when he came to Canaan from Haran (Gen 12:4-6). (For maps of the region see PALESTINE.) Abraham’s grandson, Jacob, upon returning to Canaan from Paddan-aram, bought land in Shechem and settled there with his family and flocks (Gen 33:18-19).

When a conflict arose with some of the local inhabitants, Jacob’s sons massacred the men of Shechem and plundered the town (Gen 34:1-31). Jacob and his family then moved elsewhere, though at times they still pastured their flocks near Shechem (Gen 35:1-4; 37:12). Joseph’s bones were later buried at Shechem in a field that Jacob had given to Joseph (Gen 48:22; Josh 24:32; John 4:5-6). After the conquest of Canaan, the people of Israel gathered at Shechem to confirm the covenant. The blessings of the covenant were announced from Mt Gerizim on one side of the town, and the curses from Mt Ebal on the other. Just before Joshua’s death, the leaders of Israel gathered at Shechem once more and declared their loyalty to the covenant (Deut 27:1-14; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-28). In the division of Canaan among the Israelites, Shechem fell within the tribal allotment of Ephraim, but was set apart for the Levites. It was one of the three cities of refuge west of Jordan (Josh 20:2,7; 21:20-21; see CITY OF REFUGE). In the time of the judges, Abimelech tried to establish a kingdom in Shechem but his success was shortlived (Judg 9:1-6,16-57).

In the time of the monarchy, after the death of Solomon, Rehoboam went to Shechem to be crowned king, no doubt hoping this would help him win the allegiance of the northern tribes. However, the northerners broke away and established their own kingdom, with its capital initially at Shechem (1 Kings 12:1,25). Within a few years they shifted the capital to Tirzah, and later again to Samaria (1 Kings 15:33; 16:8,24,29). Although Shechem lost its importance, it continued to exist, even after the Assyrians had destroyed the northern kingdom and taken most of the people into captivity (Jer 41:5). When Assyria brought people from elsewhere to live in the deserted northern kingdom, these immigrants intermarried with the Israelites left in the land. In due course this produced a people of mixed blood and mixed religion who became known as the Samaritans. Shechem became the chief city of the Samaritans, and Mt Gerizim became to them a sacred mountain. There they built their temple, worshipped, and held religious festivals. The village of Sychar was nearby (John 4:5-6,20). (See SAMARIA, SAMARITANS.)

SHEEP

From earliest times people have kept sheep, whether for their meat or for their wool (Gen 4:2). In the dry semi-desert regions around Palestine, many of the Arabs and other tribal people moved with their flocks from place to place, looking for pastures and water (Gen 26:12-22; Exod 3:1; Isa 13:20).

In other lands, where there was a better supply of grass and water, people who settled down permanently in one area kept sheep as part of their farming activity. After settling down in Canaan, the Israelites, on the whole, belonged to this latter category (Deut 7:13; 1 Sam 17:15; 25:2). Israelites kept sheep mainly for their wool, which they used to make clothing (Gen 38:13; Lev 13:47- 48; Prov 27:26). Apart from those ceremonial sacrifices where worshippers ate the meat of the sheep in a ritual meal, Israelites killed sheep for meat only on special occasions (Lev 7:15; Deut 12:21; 1 Sam 25:18; Amos 6:4; see also LAMB). A well known characteristic of sheep was that they were easily led astray and soon became lost. Because of this, people who were easily led astray were sometimes likened to sheep (Isa 53:6; Matt 10:6; 18:12). Sheep needed a shepherd to protect and lead them, and in the same way people need God to care for them and give them the right leadership in life (Num 27:17; Matt 10:16; John 10:11,27; 21:15-17; 1 Peter 5:1-4; see SHEPHERD).

SHEKEL

The shekel was the basic weight in use among Israelites of Bible times. It was equal to about sixteen grams, and was used to weigh all sorts of things (1 Sam 17:5,7; 2 Sam 14:26; Ezek 4:10). One of its most frequent uses was in weighing money. Since most money was weighed in silver, the shekel of silver became also a common monetary unit (Gen 23:16; Exod 21:32; 30:13; 2 Sam 24:24). (See also COINS; WEIGHTS.)

SHEKINAH

The Hebrew word transliterated ‘Shekinah’ refers to the glory of God that symbolizes his presence. The word is not found in the Old Testament, but was introduced into the Jewish religious vocabulary by rabbis of a later era. These rabbis spoke of the Shekinah in order to encourage Israelites to have a higher idea of God. They wanted people to think of him as a dazzling light or a shining presence, rather than as a human-like figure with physical features such as hands, arms, eyes, mouth and the like. The Shekinah became particularly associated with God’s symbolic presence in the tabernacle and later the temple (Exod 40:34- 35; 1 Kings 8:11; Ezek 44:4). It also referred to other displays of God’s glory or to the reality of his presence among his people (Num 14:10,22; Isa 60:1-2; see also GLORY).

SHEOL

When the Old Testament writers spoke about the afterlife, they referred to it by using the Hebrew word sheol (translated into the Greek as hades). Some early versions of the English Bible translated sheol and hades as ‘hell’, which is unfortunate, for that gives the wrong idea. Hell, as a place of fiery punishment, is the equivalent of the word gehenna. Sheol (or hades), by contrast, is simply the place or state of the dead. More recent English versions either transliterate the words as ‘sheol’ and ‘hades’, or translate them by such expressions as ‘the world of the dead’, ‘the grave’ and ‘the pit’.

The Old Testament writers expressed their view of the afterlife in broad general terms. They saw that all people eventually die and go to sheol, whether they be rich or poor, good or bad (Job 3:13-19; Ps 88:1- 5; Isa 38:18; Ezek 31:17; 32:18-32; cf. Luke 16:19-31). In fact, the writers often used ‘sheol’ simply as another word for ‘death’ (Gen 42:38; Ps 18:5; 86:13; 116:3; cf. Matt 16:18). But by speaking of sheol, they made it clear that death does not end human existence. They may have had very little knowledge concerning the state of the person in the afterlife, but they did not doubt that the person continued to exist. People saw death as an enemy (Ps 6:5; 56:13; Eccles 8:8; cf. Rom 6:23; 1 Cor 15:26; Rev 6:8). The mysterious, silent, shadowy existence that lay beyond it was not something they looked forward to (Job 10:21-22; 17:13-16; Ps 94:17; 115:17; Isa 14:9-11; Ezek 26:19-20). The hope of the Old Testament believers was that God would not desert them in sheol, but would bring them into a new and joyful experience of life in the presence of God (Job 19:26; Ps 16:10-11; 49:15; 73:24; cf. Acts 2:27,31). For the wicked, however, sheol would bring nothing but terror (Deut 32:22; Job 31:11-12; Ps 55:15; Isa 14:19- 20; Ezek 32:18-32). During the latter part of the Old Testament era, believers became more firmly convinced that beyond death lay the resurrection (Dan 12:1-2). This confidence grew into bold assurance through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Once Christ had conquered death and hades (sheol), people had no need to fear them any longer. God had now clearly shown immortal life to be a certainty (Matt 16:18; 2 Tim 1:10; Heb 2:14-15; Rev 1:18).

Since believers now shared Christ’s conquest, they naturally looked upon those who were not believers as still under the power of death. They therefore associated the afterlife of the wicked dead with the unwelcome aspects of hades (Matt 11:23; 1 Pet 3:19-20; Rev 20:13). In relation to themselves, however, believers no longer thought of the afterlife as a gloomy existence in sheol or hades, but as a joyful experience of life with Christ in paradise (Luke 23:42; 2 Cor 5:8; Phil 1:23; see HEAVEN; PARADISE).

SHEPHELAH

‘Shephelah’ is a Hebrew word used to describe the low hill country between the coastal plain and the central mountains of Palestine. It was a fertile region, suitable for growing fruit trees and raising sheep and cattle (Josh 10:40; Judg 1:9; 2 Chron 9:27; 26:10; Jer 17:26; 32:44). For details see PALESTINE, subheading ‘Shephelah’.

SHEPHERD

The occupation of shepherd was one of the earliest recorded (Gen 4:2). In the dry semi-desert countries of the Bible story, shepherds lived a hard tough life, battling against heat, drought and wild animals (Gen 31:38-40; Amos 3:12). It is therefore not surprising that ‘shepherd’ became a word symbol for a leader of God’s people. The emphasis is not only on care and leadership, but also on the ability to endure hardship. The shepherd must be prepared to battle against all opponents who threaten the welfare of those in his care (John 10:1,10-12; Acts 20:28-29).

Life of a shepherd

Shepherds were a common sight in Palestine and neighbouring countries. They lived in tents and moved around from place to place with their flocks in search of grass and water (Exod 3:1; Deut 8:15; Isa 13:20; see also SHEEP). Often the only water available was at wells that people had dug. These wells were frequently the cause of disputes (Gen 26:12-32). After the Israelites took possession of Canaan, the shepherds among them settled down more or less permanently with their flocks. They still faced the problem of finding good pastures and water, and still had to meet attacks by wild animals (1 Sam 17:34; Ps 23:2,4-5; Matt 10:16). Additional dangers came from thieves who stole sheep by night, and desert people who raided in groups (Gen 31:39; Job 1:14-15; 2 Chron 21:16-17; John 10:10). The shepherd’s only weapons were a sling and a stick, though he may have used trained dogs to help him in his work (1 Sam 17:40,49; Job 30:1; Ps 23:4; Zech 11:7,10). Sheep had to be protected and watched by shepherds constantly, otherwise they would wander away and be lost. If sheep became lost, the shepherd sometimes had to risk his life in searching for them and rescuing them (Ezek 34:8,12; Matt 18:12). The shepherd was responsible to pay the owner the cost of any sheep lost while in his care, unless he could satisfy the owner that he was not to blame for the loss (Gen 31:39; Exod 22:10-13). At night the shepherd usually kept his sheep in a walled enclosure called a fold, as an added protection against dangers (Num 32:36; Micah 2:12; Hab 3:17; Luke 2:8; John 10:1). He counted the sheep as they went in at night, to make sure that none was missing; then, in the morning, he led them out into the fields (Jer 33:13; Ezek 20:37; John 10:3,27; 17:12).

Leaders of God’s people

The Old Testament often refers to the leaders of Israel as shepherds, and to the people as the flock (Num 27:17; Isa 63:11). Many of Israel’s leaders were bad shepherds, and because of them the nation crumbled (Isa 56:11; Jer 50:6; Ezek 34:2-6; Zech 11:15-17). In the New Testament also leaders of God’s people are referred to as shepherds of the flock. As elders of a church they have the responsibility to lead it, feeding it with spiritual food and protecting it from spiritual harm (John 21:15-17; Acts 20:28-29; 1 Peter 5:1-3; see ELDER; PASTOR). The true shepherd, however, is always God (Gen 49:24; Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). This is seen clearly in the illustration Jesus used to picture himself as the good shepherd. He was so concerned for the sheep that he died for them (John 10:1-29; Heb 13:20; 1 Peter 2:25; 5:4; cf. Ezek 34:23-24).

SHILOH

One of the main routes from Egypt to northern Palestine was the road that passed along the top of the central hill country through the towns of Beersheba, Hebron, Jerusalem, Bethel, Shiloh and Shechem (Judg 21:19). (For map see PALESTINE.) Shiloh’s convenient location on this road may have been one reason why it was Israel’s central place of worship for most of the period of the judges. There that the nation’s leaders set up the tabernacle and the people held religious festivals (Josh 18:1,8-10; 19:51; 22:9,12; Judg 18:31; 21:19-21; 1 Sam 1:3,9; 3:21; 4:3). Some time later, because of the sins of the people, God allowed invaders to destroy Shiloh (Ps 78:60; Jer 7:12-14). This may have occurred during the period of Philistine oppression that led to the establishment of Israel’s monarchy (1 Sam 4:2; 8:20). In the early days of the monarchy the tabernacle was set up at Nob, a town close to Jerusalem (1 Sam 21:1-6; 22:18-19). Later, Shiloh was partly rebuilt, but never again was the tabernacle set up there (1 Kings 14:4).

SHINAR

Shinar was an ancient name for the land of Babylon. Its chief towns were Babel, Erech and Accad, and its most famous warrior was Nimrod (Gen 10:9-10; 11:1-9; 14:1; Isa 11:11; Dan 1:2). (For details see BABEL; BABYLON.)

SHIP

Israelites were not seafaring people, partly because the Mediterranean coast south of Mt Carmel had shallow waters and sandy shores, with no good sites for harbours. North of Mt Carmel, however, there were good harbours at Tyre and Sidon. This was one reason why the Phoenicians became a famous seafaring nation in Old Testament times (Ezek 27:2,25; 28:2; see PHOENICIA). In the time of the Israelite monarchy, King Hiram of Phoenicia and King Solomon of Israel established a fleet of ships to operate between the Red Sea port of Ezion-geber and India. Because of the Israelites’ lack of seafaring experience, Solomon had to rely on the Phoenician seamen to guide and teach his men. The ships used on this route were known as ‘ships of Tarshish’. This was a technical name for a certain kind of ocean-going cargo ship, not an indication of the port to which or from which a ship was sailing (1 Kings 9:26-28; 10:11,22; see TARSHISH). ‘Ships of Tarshish’, like other large ships, may have been driven by oars or by sails (Isa 33:21,23; Ezek 27:6-8,26,29). River boats, which were much smaller, may have been made of papyrus reeds (Isa 18:1-2). God’s judgment on the greedy commercial giant Phoenicia (Tyre) was pictured by the prophet Ezekiel as the sinking of a great ship. The ship had been beautifully made of the best materials from all parts of the trading world.

Its planks, masts, oars and decking were made of the best timbers, its sails of the finest linen, and its colours of the most expensive dyes. The rowers, sailors and craft workers who made up its crew were highly skilled people from many countries. Tyre’s trade, however, became so great that the ship became overloaded. When caught in a storm at sea, it sank. All its cargo was lost and all the crew drowned (Ezek 27:1-9,25-27; 28:2-8; cf. Rev 18:19). In New Testament times huge grain ships sailed from Alexandria in Egypt to Greece and Rome (Acts 27:6; 28:11). They were capable of carrying large cargoes and several hundred people (Acts 27:18,37). Being sailing ships, they had to stay in port during winter months, when severe storms were likely to wreck them (Acts 27:9-20). During the stormy season the ship’s crew wrapped strong ropes or metal bands around the hulls of the ships to hold their timbers together (Acts 27:17). The smaller boats that sailed on the Lake of Galilee were used mainly for fishing or carrying passengers (Matt 4:21-22; 8:23-27; 9:1; Luke 5:2-7; John 6:22-23; 21:3). They were driven either by sails or by oars, depending on the weather conditions (Mark 6:48; John 6:19).

SHUR

Shur was a desert region in the north of the Sinai Peninsular. It was bounded by Egypt on the west (the border being along the line of the present-day Suez Canal), and the Negeb on the east (the border being along the Brook of Egypt) (Gen 20:1; Exod 15:22; 1 Sam 15:7; 27:8). The main inland route from Egypt to Jerusalem passed through the Wilderness of Shur and the Judean towns of Beersheba and Hebron (Gen 13:1,18; 16:7; 21:14; 46:5). (For further details see PALESTINE, subheading ‘Negeb’.)

SIDON

The Mediterranean seaports of Tyre and Sidon were the two most important towns of Phoenicia. The Bible frequently mentions the two towns together as a way of referring to Phoenicia in general (Ezra 3:7; Isa 23:1,4; Zech 9:2; Mark 7:24). Sometimes mention of only one of the towns is sufficient. For example, Tyre, being the larger and more prosperous port, may have symbolized the greed and arrogance that Phoenicia as a whole developed because of its international shipping activity (Isa 23:1,8,17; Ezek 27:3,25; 28:5,9,16). In the same way Sidon, being a dominant religious centre, fittingly symbolized the corrupt Phoenician religion that at times troubled Israel (Judg 10:6; 1 Kings 16:31-33). (For details of Sidon’s commerce, religion and history see PHOENICIA.)

SIGNS

In the Bible mighty works, miracles, wonders and signs are often linked together. This is because God’s miracles are not merely extraordinary events, but extraordinary events with a meaning. They reveal something of the power and purposes of God (Exod 7:3; Deut 4:34; 7:19; Josh 24:17; John 2:11; Acts 2:22,43; Heb 2:4). Jesus’ miracles of raising the dead, healing the sick and casting out demons were clear evidence that the kingdom of God had come (Matt 11:2-6; 12:28; see KINGDOM OF GOD), and that Jesus was the Messiah, the Son of God (John 2:11; 4:54; 20:30-31). Yet many of the Jews refused to accept the evidence.

They wanted Jesus to perform some special sign as added proof that he was the Messiah who had come from God. This was something Jesus consistently refused to do. The only sign to be given them would be the sign of Jesus’ resurrection, by which the Father would show clearly that Jesus was his Son (Matt 12:38-40; 16:1-4; John 2:18-25; see MESSIAH; MIRACLES). After Jesus’ resurrection and ascension, his apostles did the same sorts of signs and miracles as Jesus himself had done previously. The power of Jesus now worked through them, enabling them to continue the work of Jesus by proclaiming the kingdom of God and establishing his church in the world (Acts 2:43; 3:6; 4:30; 5:12; 8:12-13; 2 Cor 12:12; Heb 2:3-4). The enemy of Christ also uses signs and wonders, but he does so in order to deceive people and lead them to destruction (Matt 24:24; 2 Thess 2:9-11; Rev 13:11-14).

SILAS

Among the more open-minded Jewish Christians in the Jerusalem church was Silas, sometimes called Silvanus. Besides being Jewish, he had the privileged status of Roman citizenship (Acts 15:22; 16:37). He was present at the conference in Jerusalem that discussed the problems created by Jewish legalists among the Gentile churches. When the Jerusalem leaders decided to send representatives to reassure the Gentile churches, Silas was one of the two they chose (Acts 15:22-27). He was a preacher whose messages strengthened the hearers (Acts 15:32). Silas must have impressed Paul with his conduct at the conference in Jerusalem. As a result Paul chose him as his fellow worker for a missionary tour to the recently planted Gentile churches and beyond (Acts 15:40). He was with Paul through dangerous experiences in Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea and Corinth (Acts 16:19-17:15; 18:5-11), and Paul often spoke warmly of him as his fellow worker (2 Cor 1:19; 1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1). After his association with Paul, Silas worked closely with Peter. He visited Rome with Peter, and played a part in the writing of 1 Peter, a letter that Peter sent to the churches of northern Asia Minor (1 Peter 1:1; 5:12-13; see PETER, LETTERS OF).

SIMEON

Several people named Simeon feature in the biblical record. Historically, the most important was Simeon the son of Jacob, for he was father of the tribe of Simeon. Two New Testament men named Simeon are also significant. In the Old Testament Simeon was the second eldest of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:22-23). He and the next son, Levi, were the cause of the ruthless massacre of the men of Shechem, an incident that Jacob deeply regretted (Gen 34:25,30). When Jacob blessed his sons before his death, he recalled the violence of Simeon and Levi, and prophesied that their descendants would be scattered in Israel (Gen 49:5-7). When Canaan was divided among the twelve tribes, Simeon did not receive an independent tribal area of its own. It received part of the area of Judah (since Judah’s area was too large for it) in the south of Canaan.

The result was that Simeon soon lost its separate tribal identity and became part of the more powerful Judah (Josh 19:1,9; Judg 1:3,17). Towns belonging to Simeon were counted as belonging to Judah (Josh 19:1-5; cf. 15:21-31). Though absorbed by Judah, the Simeonites continued to maintain their own genealogical records (1 Chron 4:24,33; 12:24-25). In the New Testament At the time of Jesus’ birth, only a few Jews had a true understanding of the sort of Saviour that the Messiah would be. One of these was an old man named Simeon. When he saw Mary presenting her baby to God in the temple, he praised God that the great Saviour had come (Luke 2:22-32). He saw that as people accepted or rejected Jesus, they would show the true condition of their hearts and so find either salvation or condemnation. He also warned Mary that sorrow lay ahead for her because of what people would do to her son (Luke 2:33-35). The other Simeon mentioned in the New Testament was a prophet and teacher in the church at Antioch in Syria (Acts 13:1). His nickname ‘Niger’ (meaning ‘black’) suggests that he was dark skinned. Some have thought he might have been the man elsewhere called Simon of Cyrene, a place in North Africa (Mark 15:21). (See also SIMON.)

SIMON

The name ‘Simon’ in the New Testament is the equivalent of ‘Simeon’ in the Old Testament (see SIMEON). Two of Jesus’ disciples were named Simon. The first was better known as Peter (Matt 10:2; see PETER). The other was known either by an Aramaic word transliterated ‘Cananaean’ or by the equivalent Greek word transliterated ‘Zealot’ (Matt 10:4; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13). The name may have indicated his enthusiastic nature, or it may have referred to his association with the party of anti-Rome Jews known as the Zealots, or Patriots (see ZEALOT). Five other people named Simon are mentioned in the Gospels. The first was a younger brother of Jesus (Matt 13:55). The second was a Pharisee who invited Jesus to his home but received Jesus’ rebuke for his self-righteousness (Luke 7:36-50).

The third was the owner of a house where a woman anointed Jesus just before his death (Matt 26:6). (For the suggestion that this man was the father or husband of Martha see MARTHA.) The fourth was a man from Cyrene in Africa who helped carry Jesus’ cross to the crucifixion site (Mark 15:21). (He is possibly the person called Simeon in Acts 13:1.) The fifth was the father of Judas Iscariot (John 13:2,26). Two more people named Simon feature in the book of Acts. One was a sorcerer in Samaria who believed Philip’s preaching and was baptized. But he was still a sorcerer at heart, and thought that by paying the right amount of money, he could receive the Holy Spirit’s power and so perform wonders. He was terrified when Peter announced a horrible judgment upon him, and asked Peter to pray on his behalf for God’s mercy (Acts 8:9-24). The other Simon was a tanner in Joppa, on the Mediterranean coast. Peter on one occasion stayed in Simon’s house, and while there he had a vision that prepared him to visit Cornelius and other Gentiles in Caesarea (Acts 9:43; 10:1-23).

SIN

The Bible refers to sin by a variety of Hebrew and Greek words. This is partly because sin may appear in many forms, from deliberate wrongdoing and moral evil to accidental failure through weakness, laziness or ignorance (Exod 32:30; Prov 28:13; Matt 5:22,28; Rom 1:29-32; James 4:17). But the common characteristic of all sin is that it is against God (Ps 51:4; Rom 8:7). It is the breaking of God’s law, that law being the expression of the perfection that God’s absolute holiness demands (Isa 1:2; 1 John 3:4). It is the ‘missing of the mark’, that ‘mark’ being the perfect standard of the divine will (Deut 9:18; Rom 3:23). It is unbelief, for it rejects the truth God has revealed (Deut 9:23; Ps 78:21-22; John 3:18-19; 8:24; 16:9). It is ungodliness, and it makes a person guilty before God (Ps 1:5-6; Rom 1:18; James 2:10). Origin of sin From the activity of Satan in the Garden of Eden, it is clear that sin was present in the universe before Adam and Eve sinned. But the Bible does not record how evil originated. What it records is how evil entered the human race (see EVIL). Because human beings were made in the image of God, the highest part of their nature can be satisfied only by God. They cannot be independent of God, just as the image of the moon on the water cannot exist independently of the moon (Gen 1:26-28; see HUMANITY, HUMANKIND). Therefore, when God gave the created world to them, he placed a limit; for complete independence would not be consistent with their status as being in God’s image (Gen 2:15-17). But the human beings God created went beyond the limit he set, and so they fell into sin. Because of their ability to know God, they were tempted to put themselves in the place of God. They wanted to rule their lives independently of him and be the final judge of what was good and what was evil (Gen 3:1-6). Pride was at the centre of human sin (Rom 1:21-23; 1 John 2:16; cf. Isa 10:15; 14:13-14; Obad 3a; see PRIDE). Sin entered human life because people doubted God, then ceased to trust him completely, and finally were drawn away by the desire to be their own master (James 1:14; cf. Ezek 28:2,6; John 16:9). Human sin originated in the human heart; the act of disobedience was the natural outcome (Prov 4:23; Jer 17:9; Mark 7:21-23). Above all, sin was against God – the rejection of his authority, wisdom and love. It was rebellion against God’s revealed will (Gen 3:17; Rom 1:25; 1 John 3:4). And the more clearly God’s will was revealed, the more clearly it showed human sinfulness (Rom 3:20; 5:20; cf. John 15:22-24).

Results of sin

As a result of their sin, human beings have fallen under the judgment of God. They have come into a state of conflict with the natural world (Gen 3:17-19; Matt 24:39), with their fellow human beings (Gen 3:12-13; 1 John 3:12), with their inner selves (Gen 3:7,11-13; Rom 7:15,19) and with God (Gen 3:8- 10,22-24; Rom 3:10-18). The penalty they have brought upon themselves is death (Gen 2:17; 3:19,22-24; Rom 6:23). This involves not only physical death but also spiritual death. It means separation from God, who is the source of spiritual life (John 3:3,7; Rom 6:16; 7:5,13; 1 Cor 15:56; Eph 2:1-5; see DEATH). Ever since Adam’s sin, the human story is one of people running from God, loving themselves instead of God, and doing their will instead of God’s (Rom 1:19-23). The more they reject God, the more they confirm their own stubbornness and hardness of heart (Matt 11:20-24; 13:12-13; Rom 1:28-32; Eph 4:18). Sin has placed them in the hopeless position of being separated from God and unable to bring themselves back to God (Isa 59:2; Rom 3:19-20; Gal 3:10). God, however, has not left sinners in this helpless condition, but through the one fully obedient human being, Jesus Christ, has reversed the effects of Adam’s sin (Rom 5:6,8,15,18).

All sinned in Adam (‘Original sin’)

In Romans 5:12-21 the whole human race is viewed as having existed originally in Adam, and therefore as having sinned originally in Adam (Rom 5:12; cf. Acts 17:26). Adam is humankind; but because of his sin he is humankind separated from God and under his condemnation. Because of Adam’s sin (his ‘one act of disobedience’) the penalty of sin, death, passes on to all people; but because of Christ’s death on the cross (his ‘one act of obedience’) the free gift of God, life, is available to all people. Adam, by his sin, brings condemnation; Christ, by his death, brings justification (Rom 5:17-20; 6:23; 1 Cor 6:9-11). If ‘condemn’ means ‘declare guilty’, ‘justify’ means ‘declare righteous’; and this is what God, in his immeasurable grace, has done for sinners who turn in faith to Jesus Christ (Rom 5:16; 8:33; see JUSTIFICATION). Just as Adam is the representative head of humankind as sinful and separated from God, so Jesus Christ is the representative head of humankind as declared righteous and brought back to God. All who die, die because of their union with Adam; all who are made alive, are made alive because of their union with Christ (Rom 5:16; 1 Cor 15:22). Christ bears sin’s penalty, but more than that he brings repentant sinners into a right relationship with a just and holy God (Rom 4:24-25; 5:8; 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 3:10-13; Phil 3:9).

Human nature is corrupt (‘Total depravity’)

In addition to being sinners because of their union with Adam, people are sinners because of what they themselves do. They are born with a sinful nature inherited from Adam, and the fruits of this sinful nature are sinful thoughts and actions (Ps 51:5; John 3:6; Eph 4:17-18). People do not need to be taught to do wrong; they do it naturally, from birth. Sinful words and deeds are only the outward signs of a much deeper evil – a sinful heart, mind and will (Prov 4:23; Jer 17:9; Mark 7:21-23; Gal 5:19-21; Eph 2:3). Every part of a person is affected by this sinful nature. The corruption is total (Gen 6:5; 8:21; Isa 64:6; Rom 3:13-18; 7:18,21,23) and it affects all people (Rom 3:9- 12,23; 1 John 1:8,10). Total depravity means not that the whole of humanity is equally sinful, but that the whole of each person’s nature is affected by sin. All people are sinners, but not all show their sinful condition equally. The strong influences of conscience, will-power, civil laws and social customs may stop people from doing all that their hearts are capable of, and may even cause them to do good (Luke 6:33; 11:13; Rom 2:14-15; 13:3). But in spite of the good that people may do, human nature is still directed by sin. It has a natural tendency to rebel against God’s law (Rom 7:11-13; 8:7-8; Gal 5:17-21; Col 2:23;). (See also FLESH.)

A hopeless position apart from

God Since human nature is in such a sinful condition, people are unable to make themselves into something that is pleasing to God (Isa 64:6; Rom 8:7-8). The disease of sin has affected all that they are (their nature) and all that they do (their deeds). Every person is a sinner by nature and a sinner in practice (Ps 130:3; Rom 3:23; 1 John 1:8,10). The position of sinners before God is hopeless. Their sin has cut them off from God, and there is no way he can bring themselves back to God (Isa 59:2; Hab 1:13; Col 1:21). They are slaves to sin and cannot free themselves (John 8:34; Rom 7:21-23). They are under God’s condemnation, and have no way of saving themselves (Rom 3:19-20). They are the subjects of the wrath of God and cannot avoid it (Rom 1:18). (See also JUDGMENT; PROPITIATION.) This complete hopelessness may be summarized under the word ‘dead’. People are dead in their sin and unable to make themselves alive. But God in his grace gives them new life, so that they can be spiritually ‘born again’ (John 3:3-8; Eph 2:1; see REGENERATION). This is entirely the work of God. It is made possible through the death of Jesus Christ, and is effectual in the lives of all those who in faith turn from their sin to God (John 1:13,29; 6:44-45; Acts 3:19; Rom 3:24-25; Eph 2:8-9). (See also ATONEMENT; RECONCILIATION; REDEMPTION.) Having been forgiven their sin and freed from its power, believers then show it to be true by the way they live (Rom 6:1,14,18; Gal 5:1). Because of the continued presence of the old sinful nature (the flesh) they will not be sinless, but neither will they sin habitually (Rom 6:6-13). They can expect victory over sin, and even when they fail they can be assured that genuine confession brings God’s gracious forgiveness (Matt 6:12-15; 1 John 1:6-10; 2:1-2; 3:10). (See also CONFESSION; FORGIVENESS; SANCTIFICATION.)

SINAI

The Sinai Peninsular is the dry region that lies south of Palestine between the two northern arms of the Red Sea. Within it are the semi-desert regions known as the Wilderness of Shur in the north and the Wilderness of Paran in the north-east. (For map see SHUR.) In the biblical record the Sinai region’s chief importance is as the location of the mountain in the south known as Horeb, or Mount Sinai. This was the place where God first met Moses and where he later established his covenant with the travelling Israelites (Exod 3:1,12; Acts 7:30). Through that covenant God formally made them his people and gave them this law (Exod 19:1-25; 24:16; 34:1-4,29; Lev 7:37- 38; 27:34; Deut 1:6,19; 5:1-2; 1 Kings 8:9; Acts 7:38). For about one year the people of Israel camped at Mt Sinai, organizing themselves for the new life that lay ahead in Canaan (Exod 19:1; Num 10:11).

But because of their disobedience, they took about forty years to reach Canaan. They spent much of this time in the wilderness regions of the Sinai Peninsular, where the older generation passed away and a new generation grew up. It was this new generation that entered Canaan (Num 1:19; 10:12; 14:31-34; 26:63-65). Several hundred years later, when the prophet Elijah felt that God’s covenant people were a total failure, God brought him to Mt Sinai to reassure him. Though God would punish Israel, he would preserve the faithful minority and through them fulfil his covenant promises (1 Kings 19:8-18). To Israelites, the covenant was inseparably linked with Sinai. But it was a covenant that was limited by time and restricted to one nation. The new covenant, by contrast, has no such limitations or restrictions. It comes into being through Jesus Christ and is identified not with Sinai but with heaven (Gal 4:24-27; Heb 12:18-29; see COVENANT).

SINGING

From ancient times to the present, singing has been used as a form of relaxation or amusement (2 Sam 19:35; Amos 6:4-5), an expression of joy (Prov 29:6; Isa 16:10; James 5:13), a form of celebration (Judg 5:1-2; 1 Sam 21:11), and a means of praising God (Exod 15:1; Ps 30:4; 66:4; 95:1-3; Acts 16:25; Rev 5:9; 15:3). Singing has often been associated with music and dancing (Gen 31:27; Exod 15:20-21; Isa 5:12; see DANCING; MUSIC). In the temple worship that David organized, there were groups of singers who sang under a conductor to the accompaniment of music (1 Chron 15:16,22). This arrangement was followed by some of Israel’s later leaders (2 Chron 29:30; Ezra 3:10-11). The psalms that these singers sang were sometimes divided into parts that individuals or sections of the choir sang in turn (Ezra 3:11; Ps 118; see PSALMS, BOOK OF). Singing is an important part of the life of the church (1 Cor 14:26; cf. Mark 14:26).

It should be an expression of praise to God that arises from a heart filled with joy and thanks. However, the songs must be based firmly on the Word of God, and people must sing them with understanding, not just with a feeling of enjoyment. Only in this way will God be truly praised and the singers be truly built up in their Christian faith (1 Cor 14:15; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). In the early church, songs were an important means of summarizing Christian truth in a form that could be easily remembered and repeated. The New Testament contains what appear to be selections from early Christian songs (Phil 2:6-11; Col 1:15-20; 1 Tim 3:16; cf. also Luke 1:46-55,68-79; 2:14,29-32; Rev 4:11; 5:9-10; 11:17-18; 15:3-4.)

SLAVE

Slavery was well established throughout the ancient world long before Israel formally became a nation (Gen 15:2-3; 16:1-2; 17:12; 30:1-3). Israelite law recognized the evils of slavery, but it also recognized that slavery had for so long been part of society that it could not be removed quickly or easily. The law given to Israel at Sinai was not a program for the ideal society, but a legal system designed to maintain order and administer justice among a people whose way of life was already well established. Nevertheless, it introduced values of human dignity that undermined the foundations on which slavery was built, and so started the process that led eventually to its removal.

Old Testament regulations

Unlike slaves in other countries, Israelite slaves had rights. They were given one full day’s rest each week (Exod 20:10) and were protected against unjust treatment. If they suffered brutal punishment, they received compensation by being set free (Exod 21:26-27). Israelite slaves could be held captive no more than six years (Exod 21:1-2; Deut 15:12). When they went out free, the master had to give them sufficient goods to enable them to begin a new life satisfactorily (Deut 15:13-14). If a male slave had obtained a wife from among his fellow slaves, she was not automatically released with him. However, he could, if he wished, continue to work for the master and so keep his family together (Exod 21:3-6). A female slave who had become a wife or concubine of the master (or his son) was not freed after six years; but neither could her master sell her to a foreigner if he no longer wanted her. If her family did not buy her back, her husband-master had to continue to look after her in accordance with her rights as his wife. If he failed to do this, he had to set her free (Exod 21:7-11). Israelites were not to take fellow Israelites as slaves in payment for debts, and were to buy back any of their relatives who had sold themselves to foreigners in payment for debts (Lev 25:39-41; 25:47-49).

Kidnapping for slavery was an offence that carried the death penalty (Deut 24:7), and the practice of returning runaway slaves to their masters was prohibited (Deut 23:15-16). International slave trading was condemned (Ezek 27:13; Joel 3:4-8; Amos 1:6,9; cf. Rev 18:13). Most slaves in Israel were either descendants of the former inhabitants of the land or people taken captive in war (Lev 25:44-45; Num 31:9; Josh 9:21; 2 Sam 12:31; 1 Kings 9:20-21). Yet these slaves also had rights (Deut 21:10-14). They could even join in the full religious life of Israel, provided they had formally become part of the covenant people through the rite of circumcision (Exod 12:44; Deut 16:14). All these restrictions helped to decrease the practice of slavery in Israel. But the process was much slower than it should have been, mainly because people of power and influence ignored the law. This was particularly so among corrupt officials and ruthless money-lenders (2 Kings 4:1; Neh 5:5; Amos 2:6; see LENDING).

Some New Testament examples

In the Roman Empire of New Testament times slavery was widespread. Even Jews had slaves among their people, though their treatment of slaves was usually better than that of non-Jewish peoples (Matt 13:27; 24:45; 25:14; 26:51; see also STEWARD). As a result of the missionary expansion of the church, many slaves became Christians. In churches as well as households there were Christian slaves and Christian masters. Though Christian slaves were equal with their Christian masters in their standing before God (Acts 2:18; Gal 3:28; 1 Cor 7:22), they were not equal in their standing in society. Christian slaves and their Christian masters were not to take advantage of each other, but cooperate for their common good (Eph 6:5-9; Col 3:22; 1 Tim 6:1-2; see MASTER). By encouraging Christian slaves to work with responsibility and dignity, Christianity helped to raise the status of slaves. They were not to think of themselves merely as tools of their masters (Col 3:22; Titus 2:9). They could use their positions as slaves to serve God, but if they got the opportunity to go free, they were advised to take it (1 Cor 7:20-21). Paul hoped that Christian masters would give Christian slaves their freedom, but he did not use his apostolic authority to force them to do so (Philem 8-10,14,21).

Relation to God

God’s people of the Old Testament era sometimes likened their relation to God to that of a slave to his master. This applied to individuals (Exod 4:10; Num 12:7; Ps 19:13; Jer 7:25) and to the nation as a whole (Judg 2:7; Isa 41:8). Although such a relationship indicated the submissive place of God’s people (Deut 6:13-14; 10:12- 13), it did not indicate shame or humiliation in their status. The word translated ‘slave’ often had the more general meaning of ‘servant’. When referring to God’s specially chosen ones, it indicated a position of honour (Ps 89:3; Isa 44:21). The same ideas are present in the New Testament, which speaks of Christians as God’s slaves or servants (Matt 6:24; 10:24; Rom 1:1; Gal 1:10). (For further discussion concerning God’s people as servants see SERVANT.) Those who are true slaves of Jesus Christ will also be true slaves of one another (Matt 20:26-27; John 13:4-15; 1 Cor 9:19; 2 Cor 4:5). This is because of the new life they have through Jesus Christ (Gal 5:13; Phil 2:5-7). Formerly they were slaves to sin (John 8:34; Gal 4:8; Titus 3:3), but Christ has set them free from that bondage and now they are slaves of righteousness (Rom 6:16-19; Gal 5:1; see REDEMPTION). (Concerning freedom from bondage to the law see FREEDOM; LAW.)

SLEEP

Apart from having its common meaning of physical rest, ‘sleep’ is used in the Bible as another word for physical death (1 Kings 2:10; Job 14:12; Jer 51:39; Matt 27:52; John 11:11-14; 1 Cor 11:30; 15:20,51). This is because death is not permanent. One day all people will rise from death to meet the great judge of the universe and receive either his blessing or his punishment (Dan 12:2; John 5:28-29). Sleep is used also as another word for spiritual laziness, whether of non-Christians (Eph 5:14) or Christians (Rom 13:11). Christians must not be ill-disciplined or careless, as those are who live in the ‘night’ of spiritual darkness. They must be spiritually alert and watchful, as they now belong to the ‘day’ of spiritual life and light (Rom 13:11-14; 1 Thess 5:4-8; cf. Matt 25:1-13).

SMYRNA

The port of Smyrna was in the Roman province of Asia, not far north of Ephesus. (For map see ASIA.) The church there was probably formed during Paul’s three-year stay in Ephesus, when the Ephesian converts took the gospel to the surrounding area (Acts 19:8-10; Rev 2:8). John’s letter to the church in Smyrna shows that the Christians were very poor. Spiritually, however, they were rich (Rev 2:9). They were also persecuted, mainly by the Jews, who throughout Asia were bitterly anti-Christian (Rev 2:9; cf. Acts 21:27). God encouraged them with the promise that, no matter how much they might suffer in the present world, he would preserve the faithful for his heavenly kingdom (Rev 2:10-11).

SNAKE

Snakes were widespread throughout the Palestine region. Because of their poisonous bites and cunning habits, they were often spoken of as a picture of wicked people and wicked deeds (Gen 49:17; Deut 32:33; Ps 58:4; 140:3; Jer 46:22; Matt 3:7; 12:34; 2 Cor 11:3). The most striking use of the snake as a picture of one who is evil is in reference to the Devil, Satan, who is called ‘that ancient snake’ (Rev 12:9; cf. 3:1,14-15). Some kinds of snakes were used by charmers and magicians in performing tricks (Eccles 10:11). It seems that Egyptian magicians hypnotized snakes to stiffen them, and in this way could imitate Aaron’s miracle of turning a stick into a snake. But Aaron showed that his actions were miracles, not tricks, when his snake swallowed up those of the magicians (Exod 7:8-12; cf. 4:2-4). On the journey from Egypt to Canaan, God punished his rebellious people with a plague of desert snakes whose bite produced burning pains and even death. When Moses prayed for the people, God replied by promising to heal those who stopped their complaining and demonstrated their trust in him by looking on a bronze snake that he had commanded Moses to make (Num 21:4-9; John 3:14-15; 1 Cor 10:9). This bronze snake later became an object of worship and had to be destroyed (2 Kings 18:4).

SODOM

It is believed that the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah were located near the southern end of the Dead Sea, but through earthquake activity the sea spread farther south and covered whatever remained of the ancient cities. The area around Sodom was once suitable for raising flocks and herds, and for this reason Lot settled there (Gen 13:10-13). On one occasion when Sodom was invaded by plunderers, Lot was taken captive. But Abraham took some of his guards and workmen, defeated the invaders and recaptured Lot. Abraham acknowledged that God was the one who had given him victory, and he refused to accept any reward from the king of Sodom (Gen 14:1-24). Sodom and Gomorrah were notoriously sinful, and homosexual practices were widespread (Gen 19:4-10).

God determined to destroy the cities, but Abraham asked God to withhold his judgment if ten righteous people could be found. But ten righteous people could not be found and the two cities were destroyed. Lot and his family, however, escaped before the judgment fell (Gen 18:22-33; 19:12-14). Petroleum, bitumen, salt and sulphur were abundant in this area (cf. Gen 14:10), and these became part of the means of judgment. The cities were destroyed probably through the lighting of natural gases by lightning, combined with earthquake disturbance. Nevertheless, the fiery destruction was also the work of God, for its timing and extent were exactly as God had previously announced (Gen 19:24-29). In later generations people likened great moral sin to the sin of Sodom and Gomorrah, and likened a devastating judgment to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Deut 29:23; Isa 3:9; 13:19; Jer 23:14; 49:18; Ezek 16:46-56; Zeph 2:9; Matt 10:15; Luke 17:28-29; 2 Peter 2:6; Jude 7). Jesus warned that Jews of his day, who heard his teaching and saw his mighty works yet rejected him, would receive a more severe judgment than people of those wicked Gentile cities who had never heard of him. The people of Jesus’ day had a greater privilege, and this placed upon them a greater responsibility (Matt 11:20-24).

SOLDIER

Christians are often likened to soldiers who have to clothe themselves with armour to fight against the evil forces of Satan (2 Cor 10:3-4; Eph 6:10-18; see ARMOUR; WEAPONS). They have to endure hardship and opposition, concentrating on the task God has given them, without losing heart (1 Tim 1:18; 2 Tim 2:3-4). Israel’s Old Testament history is full of stories of the heroic deeds of its soldiers. Not all these heroes were godly, though some were great servants of God whose faith on occasions saved Israel (Heb 11:32). (For methods of warfare see WAR.) The soldiers mentioned in the New Testament are usually Romans. The Roman centurions, who feature in a number of New Testament stories, appear to have been men of quality. Some of them became Christians (Matt 8:5-13; 27:54; Acts 10:1-2; 23:17-18; 27:43).

SOLOMON

God’s choice to succeed David as king over Israel was Solomon, the son born to David and Bathsheba after their first (and illegitimate) son had died (2 Sam 12:24-25; 1 Chron 28:5). He was anointed as king before his father died, in order to overthrow the attempts of his brother Adonijah to seize the throne for himself (1 Kings 1:5-53).

Establishing his authority

Once David was dead, Solomon quickly dealt with Adonijah and the two leaders who had supported him. He interpreted a request from Adonijah as treason and executed him (1 Kings 2:13-25). He also executed the commander-in-chief of the army, Joab (1 Kings 2:28-34), and sent the priest Abiathar into exile (1 Kings 2:26-27). After this he executed Shimei, a relative of Saul who had always been hostile to the house of David (1 Kings 2:36-46; cf. 2 Sam 16:5-14). By marrying the daughter of the king of Egypt, Solomon entered into a treaty with Egypt that guaranteed peace between the two nations (1 Kings 3:1).

The formal treaty probably involved paying respect to foreign gods, a practice that was a repeated temptation to Solomon and brought him increasing trouble (1 Kings 11:1-8). Solomon’s love for lavish religious ceremony also led him into trouble (1 Kings 3:3-4), but his request for wisdom won God’s approval (1 Kings 3:5-14). He soon proved his wisdom when he had to give a decision over which of two women was the mother of a disputed baby (1 Kings 3:16-28). His fame grew rapidly, and people came from countries far and near to hear his wisdom (1 Kings 4:29-34; 10:1-13; Matt 12:42). People made collections of his proverbs and songs, and some of these are preserved in the Bible (1 Kings 4:32; Ps 72, 127; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1; Song of Songs 1:1). (For further details of Solomon’s writings see PROVERBS.) Under Solomon there was a large increase in the numbers of officials in the royal court, the national administration and the armed forces. To maintain all these people, Solomon revised the taxation system. He divided Israel into twelve zones, each of which had to maintain the government for one month of the year (1 Kings 4:7). Neighbouring nations within the Israelite empire also paid taxes (1 Kings 4:21).

Development, trade and wealth

David had prepared plans, finances and materials for Solomon to build God a temple in Jerusalem (1 Chron 22:2-16; 28:11; Acts 7:45-47). Solomon’s plans, however, far exceeded David’s. His temple would be more lavish than anything David had in mind, and his extensive building program would make Jerusalem a showpiece to the world. Solomon bought costly building materials from Hiram, king of Tyre, and paid for them with produce taken from Israel’s hard-working farmers (1 Kings 5:1-11). He also made all Israel’s working men give three months work to the king each year, which provided a year-round workforce of 30,000 men. An additional 150,000, mainly Canaanites, were made full-time slaves (1 Kings 5:13-18). The temple was a richly ornamented building that took seven years to build (1 Kings 6:38; see TEMPLE). This temple was only part of a much larger building program that Solomon had planned. He built a magnificent palace, which took a further thirteen years (1 Kings 7:1; 9:10), a military headquarters called the House of the Forest of Lebanon (1 Kings 7:2; 10:17), an auditorium called the Hall of Pillars (1 Kings 7:6), a central law court called the Hall of Judgment (1 Kings 7:7) and a separate palace for his Egyptian queen (1 Kings 7:8).

All these buildings, including the temple, were made of costly stone and best quality timber, and were enclosed in an area known as the Great Court (1 Kings 7:9-12). Solomon also greatly strengthened Jerusalem’s defences (1 Kings 9:15). In the country regions he rebuilt ruined cities, established army bases, and set up cities to store the farm produce that maintained his government (1 Kings 9:16-19). To help finance his construction programs, Solomon borrowed huge amounts of gold from Hiram (1 Kings 9:14). Unable to repay his debts, Solomon decided to cut off twenty cities in northern Israel and give them to Hiram (1 Kings 9:10-11). This only increased the resentment that the people of northern Israel, and especially the farmers, felt towards Solomon and his showpiece city in the south. In spite of the hardship of the common people (1 Kings 12:4), Solomon spent extravagantly on himself (1 Kings 10:16-21,25,27; Song of Songs 3:7-10; cf. Matt 6:29). David’s power had come through military conquest, but Solomon’s came through political and commercial treaties with neighbouring countries. One profitable operation was a sea-land trading partnership he established with Hiram of Phoenicia. Goods from the Mediterranean were collected at Hiram’s port of Tyre, carried overland to Israel’s Red Sea port of Ezion-geber, then shipped east (1 Kings 9:26-28; 10:22; for map see PHOENICIA). Solomon gained additional income by taxing all goods that passed through Israel on the international trade routes (1 Kings 10:14-15). He further enriched himself by becoming the middleman in a profitable international horse and chariot trade (1 Kings 10:28-29).

A splendid kingdom lost

Although he taught wisdom to others, Solomon did not follow that wisdom himself. He ignored the instructions that God had given concerning the conduct of an Israelite king (Deut 17:15-17), and in particular earned God’s wrath through worshipping the gods of the many foreign women whom he had taken as wives and concubines (1 Kings 11:1-10,33; Neh 13:26). All the time that Solomon was developing his magnificent kingdom, he was preparing his own punishment. He had exploited the people in order to fulfil his ambitious plans, and now the people hated him. Soon they rebelled against him openly. The ten tribes to the north broke away from the Davidic rule, though for the sake of David, God withheld the inevitable judgment until after Solomon’s death (1 Kings 11:11-13). The rebellion against Solomon was led by a young man from the north, Jeroboam. Solomon had recognized Jeroboam’s abilities earlier, and put him in charge of a large portion of the workforce from the northern tribes (1 Kings 11:28). When Solomon felt that Jeroboam was gaining support among the northerners, he tried to kill him, but Jeroboam escaped to the safety of Egypt (1 Kings 11:29-32,40). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam returned to Israel and successfully lead a breakaway rebellion (1 Kings 12:2- 4,16-20).

SON

See ADOPTION; CHILD.

SON OF GOD

Like a number of biblical expressions, ‘son of God’ may have different meanings in different parts of the Bible. Adam is called the son of God, because he came into existence as a result of the creative activity of God (Luke 3:38; cf. Acts 17:28; Heb 12:9). Angels are sometimes called sons of God, probably in reference to the fact that they are spirit beings (Job 1:6; 38:7; Dan 3:25). The nation Israel was God’s son, for God adopted it as his own (Exod 4:22-23; Rom 9:4). In a similar but higher sense, Christians are God’s sons, again through God’s gracious work of adoption (Rom 8:14-15; Gal 4:5-6; see ADOPTION). In Old Testament Israel, the Davidic king was considered to be God’s son, for through him God exercised his rule over his people (2 Sam 7:14; Ps 2:6-7). The promised Messiah would also be God’s son, for he would belong to the Davidic line of kings. That Messiah was Jesus. But Jesus was more than God’s son in the messianic sense. He was God’s Son in the sense that he was God. He did not become the Son of God through being the Messiah; rather he became the Messiah because he was already the preexistent Son of God (Matt 22:42-45; John 1:34,49; 20:31; see MESSIAH).

Eternally the Son

God is a trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit, all of whom are equally and eternally God (see TRINITY). Although Jesus is the Son, that does not mean that he was created by the Father or is inferior to the Father. On the contrary, he has the same godhead and character as the Father (Matt 11:27; John 1:1,14,18; 5:26; 8:18-19; 10:30,38; 14:9; Heb 1:1-3; 1 John 2:23; see WORD), has the powers, authority and responsibilities of the Father (John 3:35-36; 5:21-22,43; 13:3), and has the thought and purpose of the Father (John 5:17-20,30; 8:16,28-29; 14:10,24; see FATHER). The relation between Jesus (the Son of God) and his Father is unique. It should not be confused with the relation between believers (sons of God) and their heavenly Father. In the case of Jesus, the sonship is eternal.

The Father and the Son have always existed in a relation in which they are equally and unchangeably God. This is a relation that no created being can share (John 1:18; 5:37). In the case of believers, they become sons of God only through faith in Jesus. God makes them his sons by grace. Jesus was never made the Son of God. He always has been the Son (John 8:18-19; 17:1-5; 1 John 5:11-12). Jesus was careful, when talking to believers, to make a distinction between ‘my Father’ and ‘your Father’ (Matt 5:16; Luke 2:49; 12:30; John 20:17). Believers are not sons of God in the same sense as Jesus is the Son of God. Nevertheless, believers become sons of God through Jesus, the Son of God (Matt 11:27; John 1:12-13; Rom 8:16-17). Through Christ they come into a close personal relation with God the Father, and can even address him as ‘Abba’ as Jesus did (Mark 14:36; Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6; see ABBA).

The Son’s mission

As the Son of God, Jesus shares in the deity and majesty of the Father; yet he is also humbly obedient to the Father. Although he existed with the Father from eternity, the Son willingly took human form to fulfil his Father’s purposes for the salvation of human beings and the conquest of evil (Rom 8:3; Gal 4:4- 5; Heb 2:14-15). When Jesus was born in Bethlehem, the Son of God added humanity to the deity that he already had. His entrance into human life involved the supernatural work of God in the womb of the virgin Mary, so that the baby born to her, though fully human, was also the unique Son of God (Luke 1:30-31,35; 2:42,49; see VIRGIN). The earliest recorded words of Jesus indicate that even as a child he was conscious of his special relation with the Father (Luke 2:49).

The Father reaffirmed this special relation at some of the great moments of Jesus’ public ministry (Matt 3:17; 17:5; see BAPTISM; TRANSFIGURATION). Because the Son and the Father existed in this special relation, Satan tempted the Son to act independently of the Father. He tempted Jesus to use his divine powers contrary to the divine will (Matt 4:3,6). There was often a difference between the way believers spoke of Jesus’ sonship and the way Jesus himself spoke of it. Believers usually spoke of it in relation to Jesus’ divine person and his unity with the Father (Matt 16:16; John 20:31; Col 1:13; 1 John 2:23; 4:15). Jesus also spoke of it in this way, but in addition he emphasized the meaning of his sonship in relation to his earthly ministry and complete submission to his Father (Mark 13:32; John 4:34; 5:19; 7:16; 8:28,42; cf. Heb 5:8). The Father sent the Son to be the Saviour of the world, and the Son’s obedience to this mission meant that he had to suffer and die (John 3:14-16; 12:27; Rom 5:10; 8:32; 1 John 4:9-10,14). The Son completed that work, being obedient even to death (John 17:4; Phil 2:8), and God declared his total satisfaction with the Son’s work by raising him from death (Rom 1:4). However, the mission that the Father entrusted to the Son involved more than saving those who believe. It involved overcoming all rebellion and restoring all things to a state of perfect submission to the sovereign God (John 5:20-29; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 1:10; 1 John 3:8). That mission extends to the whole universe, and will reach its climax when the last enemy, death, has been banished for ever (1 Cor 15:25- 26). The conquering power of the Son’s victory at the cross will remove the last traces of sin. The Son will restore all things to the Father, and God’s triumph will be complete. God will be everything to everyone (1 Cor 15:24,28).

Acknowledging the Son

One sign of the work of God in people’s lives is their acknowledgment that Jesus Christ is the Son of God (Matt 11:27; 16:16-17; 1 John 5:10). It seems that in the early church, an open confession of Jesus Christ as the Son of God was a formal declaration that a person was a true believer (Acts 8:37; Heb 4:14; 1 John 2:23; 4:15). Even Jesus’ opponents recognized in his works and his teaching a claim to deity. For this they accused him of blasphemy and in the end crucified him (Matt 26:63-66; 27:42-43; John 5:18; 10:33,36; 19:7). God, however, demonstrated dramatically that Jesus was his Son by raising him from death and crowning him with glory in heaven (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:20; Heb 4:14; cf. John 6:62; 17:4-5). One day the Son will return to save his people and set in motion those events that will lead to God’s final triumph (1 Thess 1:10; Titus 1:13). (See also JESUS CHRIST; SON OF MAN.)

SON OF MAN

Of all the titles commonly used of Jesus in the New Testament, ‘Son of man’ was the one most used by Jesus himself and least used by others. It hardly occurs at all outside the Gospels (Acts 7:56; Rev 1:13; 14:14), and inside the Gospels is used almost solely by Jesus. By using this unusual title for himself, Jesus made people think carefully about who he was and what his mission involved (John 12:34; 13:31- 32).

A heavenly figure

The title ‘son of man’ comes from a vision recorded in the Old Testament book of Daniel. In this vision a person like a son of man came into the heavenly presence of God and received from him a universal and everlasting kingdom (Dan 7:13-14). The idea of the son of man was tied up with that of the kingdom of God, and this provided the background to Jesus’ reference to himself as the Son of man. With the coming of Jesus, the kingdom of God came visibly into the world. The world is under the power of Satan (2 Cor 4:4; 1 John 5:19), but Jesus delivered diseased and demonized people, showing that the rule and authority of God’s kingdom can release people from Satan’s power (Matt 4:23-24; 12:28; Luke 10:9,17-18; 17:20-21; see KINGDOM OF GOD). God’s kingdom will reach its fullest expression when Jesus returns at the end of the age to punish evil, remove Satan and reign in righteousness (Dan 7:13-14; Matt 13:41-43; 24:30-31; Mark 8:38). The vision in Daniel shows, however, that the Son of man shares the kingdom with his people (Dan 7:14,27). Jesus therefore promised those who followed him that they would share with him in the final triumph of his kingdom (Matt 19:28; 25:31-34; cf. 2 Tim 2:11-12; Rev 3:12,21; 20:4).

An earthly figure

In addition to this particular usage, the expression ‘son of man’ could be used in ordinary speech to apply to any man. It could be simply a poetic way of saying ‘a person’, and at times Jesus may have used it simply to mean ‘I’ or ‘me’ (Num 23:19; Ps 8:4; Ezek 2:1,3,8; Matt 11:19). The twofold meaning of ‘son of man’ was especially appropriate as a title for Jesus. It pointed to his deity (he was the heavenly Son of God; John 3:13; 6:62) and to his humanity (he was a man, a member of the human race; Matt 8:20). The Son of man was the embodiment of God. In his unique person he carried the authority of God into the world (Mark 2:10,28; cf. John 5:27; see JESUS CHRIST; SON OF GOD). Jesus’ use of ‘Son of man’ in relation to the kingdom of God likewise combined heavenly and earthly aspects. The heavenly Son of man was in fact an earthly figure born in the royal line of David and having claim to the messianic throne. Because of the Jews’ selfish nationalistic ideas of the Messiah and his kingdom, Jesus rarely spoke of himself specifically as the Messiah (see MESSIAH). By using the title ‘Son of man’, he was claiming to be the Messiah without actually using the title ‘Messiah’. He knew the title ‘Son of man’ could be puzzling, but he wanted people to think about it. He wanted them to consider the evidence of his life and work, and discover for themselves the true identity of this one who called himself the Son of man (Matt 16:13-16; John 9:35-36; 12:34). When the Jewish leaders finally understood Jesus’ usage of the title (namely, that he claimed to be both the Davidic Messiah and the supernatural heavenly Messiah of Daniel 7:13-14), they accused him of blasphemy and had him crucified (Mark 14:61-64). This did not take Jesus by surprise, for he knew that the heavenly Son of man had also to become the suffering servant. He had to suffer and die before he could receive the kingdom (Mark 8:31; 9:12; 10:45; John 3:13-14; 8:28; see SERVANT OF THE LORD). If, however, the crucified Son of man was to receive an eternal kingdom, his death had to be followed by resurrection (Mark 9:31; 10:33-34). Therefore God, in a triumphant declaration of the perfection of all that Jesus had done through his obedient life and sacrificial death, raised him up and gave him glory (1 Peter 1:21). The full revelation of that glory will take place when the Son of man returns in the triumph of his kingdom (Mark 8:38; 13:26; 14:62).

SORCERY

See MAGIC.

SORROW

Sorrow is one of the consequences of sin in the world. This does not mean that personal sorrow is always a consequence of personal sin; it means that sorrow occurs because of the damage sin has done in human society. Jesus was sorrowful because of what sin had done to the people of Jerusalem (Matt 23:37). He was sorrowful also because of what it had done to human relationships by bringing death and its consequent grief (John 11:33-36). But by his death and resurrection he conquered death and gave sorrowing believers hope (Rom 6:5-10,23; 8:31-37). The triumphant resurrection of Jesus guarantees the triumphant resurrection of all who believe in him (John 11:25-26; Rom 8:10-11; 1 Cor 15:20-23; see RESURRECTION).

Like Jesus, Christians sorrow because of the death of those they love; but they do not sorrow as unbelievers, who have nothing to look forward to beyond death (1 Thess 4:13-18; 5:9-11). Just as Jesus’ resurrection changed the original disciples’ sorrow to joy, so it gives joy to believers of all generations; and nothing, not even grief, can take that joy from them (John 16:20,22; Rom 8:38-39; Phil 3:21; 4:1,4-7; see JOY). The Christians’ expressions of sorrow are therefore not the unrestrained demonstrations of grief that characterize those who have no hope in Christ (see FUNERAL). Besides death, there are many troubles and sufferings in life that are likely to produce sorrow.

Christians should not allow themselves to be overcome by such problems, but should turn them into experiences of learning and training that can help them become stronger Christians (James 1:2-4,12; 1 Peter 1:6-9; 4:12-14,19; see SUFFERING; TESTING). Christians are to be sympathetic to those who are downhearted because of their trials, and do all they can to help them triumph through them (Rom 12:15; see ENCOURAGEMENT). Those who refuse to trust in God may find that sorrow can have a destructive effect on their lives. Even sorrow for wrongdoing, if it is no more than shame or self-pity, can have deadly results (Matt 27:3- 5). But if people submit to God, see their wrongdoing as God sees it and ask God to forgive them, their sorrow will soon be replaced by joy (Matt 5:4; Luke 7:38-39; 2 Cor 7:9-10; James 4:9-10; cf. Ezra 9:6,13,15). This will be a foretaste of the greater joy that will come in the new heavens and new earth, when sorrow will be banished for ever (Isa 65:17-19; Rev 7:17; 21:4).

SOUL

Like the word ‘spirit’, the word ‘soul’ has a variety of meanings in English. There is some variety also in the usages of the original words from which ‘soul’ has been translated. In the Hebrew of the Old Testament the word is nephesh. In the Greek of the New Testament the word is psyche.

Old Testament usage

The writers of the Old Testament did not speak of the soul as something that exists apart from the body. To them, soul (or nephesh) meant life. Both animals and people are nephesh, living creatures. Older English versions of the Bible have created misunderstanding by the translation ‘man became a living soul’ (Gen 2:7), for the words translated ‘living soul’ are the same words as earlier translated ‘living creatures’ (Gen 1:21,24). All animal life is nephesh (or psyche; Rev 8:9), though human nephesh is of a higher order than the nephesh of other animals (Gen 2:19-22). From this it is easy to see how nephesh came to refer to the whole person. We should understand a person not as consisting of a combination of a lifeless body and a bodiless soul, but as a perfect unity, a living body. Thus nephesh may be translated ‘person’; even if translated ‘soul’, it may mean no more than ‘person’ or ‘life’ (Exod 1:5; Num 9:13; Ezek 18:4,27). A reference to someone’s nephesh may simply be a reference to the person (Ps 6:3-4; 35:9; Isa 1:14) or the person’s life (Gen 35:18; 1 Kings 17:22; Ps 33:19).

New Testament usage

Similarly in the New Testament psyche can be used to mean no more than ‘person’ (Acts 2:41,43; 7:14; Rom 2:9; 13:1). Again, a reference to someone’s psyche may simply be a reference to the person (Matt 12:18; 26:38; Luke 1:46; 12:19; 1 Thess 2:8; Heb 10:38) or the person’s life (Matt 16:26; 1 Cor 15:45; Phil 2:30; 1 Peter 4:19). Sometimes ‘soul’ appears to be the same as ‘heart’, which in the Bible usually refers to the whole of a person’s inner life (Prov 2:10; Acts 4:32; see HEART; HUMANITY, HUMANKIND). A person characterized by psyche is an ordinary person of the world, one who lives solely according to the principles and values of sinful human society – the ‘natural person’, in contrast to the ‘spiritual person’. The latter is one who has new principles and values because of the Spirit of God within (1 Cor 2:12-16; cf. Jude 19; see FLESH; SPIRIT).

Human uniqueness

Both Old and New Testaments teach that when people die they do not cease to exist. The body returns to dust (Gen 3:19; Eccles 3:20), but the person lives on in a place, or state, of the dead, which the Hebrew calls sheol and the Greek calls hades (Ps 6:5; 88:3-5; Luke 16:22-23; see HADES; SHEOL). The Old Testament does not say in what way people live on after death. Certainly, they live on as a conscious personal beings, but that personal being is not complete, for it has no body (Ps 49:14; Ezek 26:20). The New Testament also is unclear on the subject of a person’s existence after death. It speaks of the bodiless person after death sometimes as a soul (Acts 2:27; Rev 6:9; 20:4), sometimes as a spirit (Heb 12:23; 1 Peter 3:18), but again the person, being bodiless, is not complete. Also, this existence as a bodiless person is only temporary, just as the decay of the body in the grave is only temporary. That is why the Bible encourages believers to look for their eternal destiny not in the endless existence of some bodiless ‘soul’ or ‘spirit’, but in the resurrection of the body to a new and glorious life (1 Cor 15:42-53; Phil 3:20-21). Since there is more to a human life than what people experience during their earthly existence, psyche naturally developed a meaning relating to more than normal earthly life. Eternal destiny also is involved (Matt 10:28; 16:26; Heb 10:38-39). From this usage, psyche developed an even richer meaning. It became the word most commonly used among Christians to describe the higher or more spiritual aspect of human life that is popularly called the soul (Heb 6:19; 13:17; James 1:21; 1 Peter 1:9,22; 2:11,25; 3 John 2).

SPICES

From very early times spices were in great demand among the peoples of Palestine and surrounding countries. Some spices were grown locally, but many were imported from the East, bringing wealth to traders and to the governments who taxed them (Gen 37:25; 1 Kings 10:2; Song of Songs 3:6; Isa 60:6; Jer 6:20; Ezek 27:17; Rev 18:11-13). Among these spices were frankincense, myrrh, galbanum, stacte, onycha, cassia, aloes, cummin, dill, cinnamon, mint, rue, mustard, balm, sweet cane, henna, nard, saffron and calumus (Gen 37:25; Exod 30:23-24,34; Song of Songs 3:6; 4:13-14; Jer 6:20; Matt 23:23; Luke 11:42; 13:19).

Spices came from the gum of certain trees and from plants and herbs (Song of Songs 4:14). People used spices in preparing food and drinks (Song of Songs 8:2; Ezek 24:10; Matt 23:23), and in making a variety of oils, medicines, cosmetics, deodorants and disinfectants (Esther 2:12; Ps 45:8; Prov 7:17; Song of Songs 4:10,14; 5:13; Jer 8:22; 51:8; Luke 7:46; John 12:3; 19:39). The preparation of these substances involved heating, drying, boiling, soaking and crushing. It was a specialized art in which some people became highly skilled (Exod 30:35; 1 Sam 8:13; 2 Chron 16:14). People placed great value on some of these substances, and preserved them in expensive boxes that they opened on special occasions (Isa 3:20; Mark 14:3; Luke 7:37-38).

Among Israelites the most sacred use of spices was in preparing oil and incense for use in religious rituals. Oil was used to anoint priests, and incense was burnt in the tabernacle (Exod 30:22-38; see OIL; INCENSE). In relation to Jesus, people used spices, or substances made from them, to present in homage to him (Matt 2:11), to anoint and refresh him (Luke 7:46; John 12:3), and to offer him on the cross to deaden his pain (but he refused their offer) (Mark 15:23). Some used spices to prepare his body for burial (John 19:39) and others brought spices to anoint the body as it lay in the tomb (Mark 16:1).

SPIRIT

The Hebrew word that in the Old Testament is usually translated ‘spirit’ is ruach. The equivalent New Testament Greek word, also usually translated ‘spirit’, is pneuma. Both ruach and pneuma had very broad meanings. They could mean, among other things, wind (1 Kings 18:45; John 3:8), breath (Gen 7:15,22; Acts 9:1), human emotion (Gen 41:8; Num 5:14; John 13:21; Acts 18:25), human understanding (Isa 29:24; Mark 2:8), will-power (Jer 51:11; Acts 19:21), human life itself (Gen 45:27; Luke 8:55) and evil beings of the unseen world (1 Sam 16:23; Mark 1:23; see UNCLEAN SPIRITS). Both words were also used of God’s Spirit, the living power of God at work (Judg 6:34; Acts 8:39; see HOLY SPIRIT).

Relationship with God

An examination of the usage of ruach in the Old Testament shows that its basic meaning has to do with something unseen and powerful that is full of life or life-giving. The word can be used of God who gives life to all human beings and animals (Job 33:4; Ps 104:30) and of the life that God gives to all human beings and animals (Gen 7:15,22). According to this usage, ruach might be defined as the ‘life-force’ or ‘breath of life’ that God created. It belongs to him. He gives it to all people and animals for the time of their earthly existence and he takes it back at death (Num 16:22; Ps 104:29; Eccles 12:7). Pneuma can have a similar meaning in the New Testament (Heb 12:9; James 2:26).

However, both ruach and pneuma may be used specifically of the human spirit. That is, they may refer to the human spirit in a way that makes it different from the general life principle that humans share with animals (Prov 11:13; 15:13; 16:2,18-19,32; 1 Cor 2:11; 2 Cor 7:1; 1 Peter 3:4; see HUMANITY, HUMANKIND). The New Testament goes further and uses pneuma to refer to that higher aspect of human existence that enables people to communicate with God and have religious experiences (Rom 8:16; 1 Cor 5:5; 7:34; Gal 6:18; Phil 3:3). ‘Spirit’ may at times be another word for ‘heart’. In such cases it speaks of a person’s whole inner life (Ps 51:10,17; Prov 16:2; Matt 5:3; Rom 1:9; Philem 25; see HEART; MIND). Through sin, the spirit has been corrupted. It is not able to save people from spiritual ruin or bring them eternal life. It is, in a sense, dead, and needs to be born anew through the creative power of the Spirit of God (Ezek 36:26-27; John 3:6). This leads, then, to an even more restricted meaning of the word, particularly in the New Testament, where the reference is to the reborn spirit of the person whom God has created anew (Rom 8:10; 1 Cor 2:14-15; Eph 4:23; see REGENERATION; SOUL).

Life after death

Yet another usage of the word ‘spirit’ is in reference to life after death. When the life of the body comes to an end, people do not cease to exist. Because they are no longer ‘in the body’, they are no longer in the physical world, but they continues to exist in the unseen world. They live on in their spirit (Heb 12:23; 1 Peter 3:18; 4:6). This kind of existence is only temporary, for human destiny is not to live for ever in a bodiless spirit, but to experience eternal life in a renewed body (1 Cor 15:35-54; Phil 3:21; 1 John 3:2; see BODY).

SPORT

There are few references to sporting activity in the Old Testament, the main ones being to wrestling (Gen 32:24), archery (1 Sam 20:20,36) and sword-fighting (2 Samuel 2:14-16). The New Testament references to sport are mainly in those writings sent to people living in Greece and Asia Minor, where there was still much interest in sports that the Greeks had introduced in pre-Christian times. Many of these sports were associated with idolatrous practices, and therefore most Jewish people avoided them. Among the Greeks and other non-Jews they were very popular.

Chief among the sports mentioned in the New Testament are running and boxing. The winner received as his prize a circular crown made of leaves (1 Cor 9:24-25; 2 Tim 4:7-8). Self-discipline and perseverance were essential, and people had to compete according to set rules, otherwise they were disqualified (1 Cor 9:25-27; Gal 5:7; 2 Tim 2:5; Heb 12:1-2). Christians recognize that sport is a beneficial form of exercise (1 Tim 4:8) but, as in other areas of life, proper attitudes are more important than a successful result. Christians should not cheat, be greedy, deliberately injure others, or allow sport to take the place of God in their lives (Matt 6:24; 22:39; Rom 12:1,9,17; Eph 4:22-27). The physical exercise that comes with sport is beneficial, but the benefits are only temporary. The benefits of spiritual exercise are eternal (1 Tim 4:8).

STARS

People in ancient times did not have the same knowledge of astronomy as people of today have. Nevertheless, they knew that the stars were beyond number and that they were an indication of the greatness of God who created them (Gen 1:16; 15:5; Job 9:7-10; Ps 8:3; 136:7-9; Amos 5:8). The Bible condemns the worship of stars and all forms of astrology (Deut 4:19; 2 Kings 21:3; 23:5; Isa 47:13; Acts 7:43). The writers of the Bible repeatedly picture God’s great interventions in judgment as being accompanied by spectacular irregularities among the sun, moon and stars (Isa 13:9-11; Ezek 32:7; Joel 2:31; 3:15; Matt 24:29-31; Rev 6:12-14).

STATE

See GOVERNMENT.

STEAL

There are many reasons why people steal, but the common feature of all stealing is that the thief unlawfully takes what belongs to someone else. For some people stealing is part of their way of life, and they may even have deliberately set out on a path of robbery and violence (Judg 9:25; Luke 10:30; John 10:10). For others stealing is contrary to their normal behaviour, but they may have been overcome by temptation in a moment of weakness (Josh 7:21; 1 Cor 10:12-13). Covetousness and greed are usually the cause of stealing (Micah 2:2; James 1:14-15; 4:1-2; see COVET), though some people steal because they are poor and in desperate need (Prov 30:8-9). Regardless of the reason, stealing is wrong, though there may be degrees of seriousness. A hungry man who steals food is not as bad as a lustful man who steals another’s wife (Prov 6:30-35).

People who steal can easily have the appearance of respectability. Through deceit and cunning, they may be able to cheat the government, outclass their rivals and exploit the defenceless, but any dishonesty in such matters is still a form of stealing (1 Kings 21:1-15; Prov 21:6; Isa 1:23; Micah 6:10-13; John 12:4-6; Rom 13:6- 7). Those found guilty of stealing should make repayment to the lawful owner, as well as pay the legal penalty (Exod 20:15; 22:1-4). The thief that becomes a Christian must not be satisfied merely with correcting the past and deciding to earn an honest living in the future. There must be the added goal of giving generously to those in need (Eph 4:28).

STEPHEN

When some of the Greek-speaking Jews in the early Jerusalem church complained that their widows were being neglected, Stephen was one of seven men chosen to help sort out the problem. He was a man full of the Holy Spirit, strong in faith, gifted in the working of miracles and brilliant in debating with the opponents of Christianity (Acts 6:1-10). Being a Greek-speaking Jew himself, Stephen went to the synagogue for Greek-speaking Jews in Jerusalem to try to turn his fellow Jews to Christ. But instead, they turned against him (Acts 6:11). Stephen saw that Christianity was not simply a remodelled Judaism. Through the life and work of Jesus, everything had changed. The Jewish laws, ceremonies, temple and priesthood had fulfilled their purpose and were no longer necessary.

When Stephen preached these things, the Jews accused him of blasphemy and brought him before their Council, the Sanhedrin (Acts 6:12-15). In defending his preaching, Stephen gave an outline of Israel’s history, his aim being to demonstrate two main points. He showed firstly that God had never limited himself to one location (Acts 7:2,9,30,44,48), and secondly that the people of Israel had always rejected God’s messengers (Acts 7:9,25,35,40). He applied these two points to the Jews of his time by saying that they were mistaken in thinking God dwelt in the Jerusalem temple, and that their rejection of Christ was in keeping with the stubbornness of their forefathers (Acts 7:48-53). Furious at Stephen’s words, the Jews rushed upon him, dragged him out of the city and stoned him to death (Acts 7:54-60). They then drove all the other Greek-speaking Jewish Christians out of Jerusalem (Acts 8:1-3). The result, however, was that Christianity spread throughout the region, as the expelled Christians preached the gospel wherever they went (Acts 8:4; 11:19).

STEWARD

In New Testament times the word ‘steward’ was usually used of the person appointed to look after a master’s household or business. This position of responsibility meant that on the one hand stewards had control over the servants under them, but on the other they were answerable to the master for the way they carried out their responsibilities. It was essential, therefore, that stewards be trustworthy (Luke 12:42; 16:1-2; 1 Cor 4:2; cf. Gen 15:2; 24:1-67). Christians are God’s stewards, appointed by him to look after his interests in the world. This applies to their responsibilities in looking after the material things God has given them, and to their responsibilities in preaching the gospel and caring for God’s people. They are answerable to God for the way they carry out these responsibilities (Gen 1:28-30; 1 Cor 4:1-5; 9:17; Col 1:25; 1 Thess 2:4; 2 Tim 1:14; 2:15; 1 Peter 4:10). (See also GIVING; SERVANT; WORK.)

STOICS

Athens was famous for the freedom it gave people to lecture publicly on such matters as religion, philosophy, politics and morals. There was, however, a council of philosophers, called the Areopagus, that exercised some control over public debate in the city. The council consisted of philosophers from two main schools, the Epicureans and the Stoics, and both were keen to hear the travelling preacher Paul give an account of his new religion (Acts 17:18-22; see AREOPAGUS). Stoics took their name from the place in Athens where their founder, Zeno, taught his philosophy (about 300 BC).

The Stoics believed that everything in life is determined by a universal Mind or Reason, which is the ‘soul of the world’. People must therefore accept whatever they meet in life without fear or complaint, and order their lives to fit in with what nature has determined for them. In doing so they will find real contentment. Stoicism therefore had a number of distinctive features: rigid self-discipline, free of both pleasure and pain; moral earnestness, free of all feelings and desires; devotion to duty, free of all emotion; and reliance upon reason, free of all superstition and irrationality. The Stoics would have agreed with Paul that there is a supreme God who is living, who is the source of all life, and who determines the times and places in which people live (Acts 17:24-26,28). But they dismissed Paul’s belief in the resurrection as unworthy of serious consideration (Acts 17:32).

STONING

See EXECUTION.

STUMBLING BLOCK

In the figurative language of the Bible, a stumbling block is some kind of obstacle that either causes people to fall or hinders them in doing what they should. (In some older English versions the word is sometimes translated ‘offence’.) The crucifixion of Jesus was a stumbling block to the Jews, because they would not believe that a person who died on a cross could be the Messiah sent by God. They expected the Messiah to be a mighty saviour who would rescue the nation Israel from its enemies and bring in an era of peace, joy and prosperity.

A person who died on a cross, by contrast, was under the curse of God (Deut 21:23). What the Jews did not understand was that when Jesus died on the cross, he bore God’s curse in the place of those who had broken God’s law. He did not die because of any wrong that he himself had committed (Gal 3:13). The Jews refused to trust in Jesus’ death on the cross for their forgiveness, but tried instead to win God’s favour by their good deeds. As a result the cross of Christ was to them a stumbling block (Rom 9:32-33; 1 Cor 1:23; Gal 5:11; 1 Peter 2:8). Jesus was always a stumbling block (offence) to those who had a wrong idea of his mission (Matt 11:6; 15:12; 16:23; Mark 6:3; John 6:61).

Something that causes a person to sin may also be called a stumbling block (Mark 9:42-43; Luke 17:1). Idolatry, for example, was a stumbling block to Jews of Old Testament times (Exod 23:33; Ezek 7:19-20; 14:3-4), and to some Christians of New Testament times. Through joining in idol feasts, these Christians were tempted to fall into idolatry and immorality (Rev 2:14). Even if those who joined in idol feasts did not engage in idolatrous practices, others who followed them to the feasts may not have been able to resist the temptations to idolatry. Christians are therefore warned to be careful of their behaviour in everything they do. A bad example can be a stumbling block to those of weaker faith (Matt 17:27; 18:6-8; Rom 14:13; 1 Cor 8:7-12; 2 Cor 6:3).

SUFFERING

Before they brought sin into their world, human beings were was in a state of harmony with God and with the natural world, and as a result were free of pain and suffering. But when they sinned, this state of harmony was ruined. God had given the natural world to them for their physical and spiritual well-being, but that world now became a cause of suffering. God had intended physical effort and bodily functions to bring pleasure, but now they brought pain and hardship (Gen 3:16-19).

Unanswered questions

It is therefore true to say that there is suffering in the world because there is sin in the world. It is not true to say, however, that the personal suffering of any one person is the direct result of that person’s sin. The book of Job makes it plain that a person cannot know the moral reasons for another’s suffering. God alone knows (Job 42:2,7). If suffering is not a measure of a person’s sin, freedom from suffering is not a measure of a person’s righteousness (Eccles 8:14; Luke 13:1-5; 1 Peter 2:19). In fact, often the righteous suffer, while the wicked enjoy peace and prosperity (Ps 73:3-5,12-14). This is part of the mystery of human suffering. God does not satisfy people’s curiosity concerning this mystery, but he does work in the lives of those who suffer, to bring them to a fuller knowledge of himself and therefore to glorify him (John 9:1-3; 2 Cor 1:3- 7; see also DISEASE). Satan takes pleasure in causing people to suffer (Luke 13:16; 2 Cor 12:7), but he can do his cruel work only to the extent God allows (Job 1:8-12; 2:1-8). Those who are in a right relationship with God may therefore see their suffering not as something essentially evil, but as something out of which good may come.

In some cases, for example, believers may regard their suffering as a means of teaching them endurance, trust and other virtues. As a result they grow more towards the sorts of people that God wants them to be (Isa 38:17; Rom 5:3-5; 2 Cor 12:7-19). In other cases they may regard it as a fitting chastisement for some wrong they have done (Ps 38:1-8; 41:3-4; see CHASTISEMENT). Or they may regard it simply as a fact of life that they cannot explain but must accept; though they must do so with faith and courage, not resentment or bitterness (Ps 73:21-26; Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17-18; 1 Peter 4:19; cf. Ps 13:1-2; Jer 20:14-18). Although people may in some circumstances pronounce judgment against themselves because of their suffering, he should not pronounce similar judgment against others who suffer. Instead they should look for ways of giving the sufferers the comfort and strength they need (Mark 1:40-41; 14:34-41; 2 Cor 1:4). Whether or not believers understand why they suffer, they need have no doubt that God still loves them and will not leave them. They may have no explanation of God’s purposes, but they can be confident that those purposes do exist and that they are perfect (Rom 8:28,37-39). Once it has passed, suffering may soon be forgotten. From the viewpoint of eternity it will appear brief indeed (John 16:21; 2 Cor 4:17).

God’s provision

Jesus was fully human and lived in the world as other people. Therefore, he too experienced the suffering that is in the world through sin, even though he himself never sinned. Through his experiences he learnt the full meaning of obedience to God in a world of sin and suffering (Heb 2:10; 5:8). Yet Jesus suffered not only because of the sins of others; he suffered to take away the sins of others. He was so identified with his fellow human beings that God’s judgment on sinful people fell upon him. He died for them (Gal 2:20; 1 Peter 2:24). Consequently, the expression ‘the sufferings of Christ’ developed the specific meaning of ‘the death of Christ’. His death was not an accident, but the divinely ordered way of dealing with sin. In suffering for sin, Christ bore God’s punishment on sin and so made it possible for people to be cleansed from sin and brought back to God (Isa 53:4-5,10; Matt 8:17; Mark 8:31; Heb 2:9; 13:12; 1 Peter 1:12; 2:21-24; 3:18). The sufferings of Christ, as well as bringing cleansing from sin, enable him to understand and help others who suffer (Heb 4:15-16). When people by faith accept the benefits of Christ’s death, they become united with Christ. To some extent they must suffer as he suffered. As the ungodly persecuted Jesus, so they will persecute his followers (John 15:18,20; Acts 14:22; 2 Cor 1:5; Phil 1:29; 3:10; 1 Peter 2:21; 4:13; see PERSECUTION). Such sufferings may test the genuineness of their faith, but may also produce in them greater strength and maturity of character (1 Peter 1:6-7; 5:10; cf. Heb 2:10; see TESTING). But Jesus’ sufferings were followed by glory, and those who suffer for his sake can look forward to sharing in that glory (Rom 8:17- 18; 1 Peter 5:10).

SUN

The Bible recognizes that the sun exercises control over certain processes of life in the world, and it sees this as a sign that God created the world and continues to care for it (Gen 1:14-18; Deut 33:13-14; Matt 5:45). The sun is a symbol of permanency and endurance (Ps 72:5,17; 89:36), but it is not eternal. It is something God has created, and therefore it must not become an object of worship (Deut 4:19; Ps 136:7-9; Ezek 8:16-18; Rom 1:18-23). The sun was darkened at the time of Jesus’ crucifixion, and will be darkened again at the time of his return to judge the world (Matt 27:45; Mark 13:24-27).

SUSA (SHUSHAN)

The city of Susa was one of the oldest in the ancient world. It was capital of the ancient Mesopotamian kingdom of Elam. When Elam was absorbed by Persia, Susa became capital of Persia, and remained so throughout the era of the Persian Empire (Ezra 4:9; Neh 1:1; Esther 1:2,5; 4:8; 8:14; Dan 8:2; see PERSIA).

SWEAR

See OATH.

SYCHAR

The village of Sychar belonged to the Samaritans and was near the ancient town of Shechem (John 4:5-6). (For details see SHECHEM.)

SYNAGOGUE

During the time of the Jews’ captivity in Babylon, they were unable to carry out sacrificial rituals. Not only were they in a foreign land, but their place of sacrifice, the Jerusalem temple, had been destroyed in 587 BC. The Jewish religious leaders therefore placed greater emphasis on teaching the moral commandments of the law than on teaching temple rituals. When the Jews returned to Jerusalem and rebuilt the temple (completed in 516 BC), they maintained this emphasis on teaching and explaining the law (Neh 8:1-4,7-8; 9:1-3). This teaching activity was a contributing factor in the emergence of local meeting places known as synagogues (from a Greek word meaning ‘to gather or bring together’).

Community centre

A synagogue was a centre for prayer, worship, teaching and administration in any locality where there were enough Jews to make such a centre workable. It was a gathering point for the Jews in the locality, a place where they had fellowship and discussed community affairs. The gathering as well as the building could be called the synagogue (Luke 12:11). There was no altar in a synagogue and no sacrifices were offered there. Wherever the Jews went they built synagogues, with the result that there were synagogues in many countries of the ancient world (Mark 1:21; Luke 4:16; Acts 9:1; 13:5,14; 17:1,10; 18:1,4; 19:8). These synagogues soon became more important in the development and operation of Judaism than the temple in Jerusalem. They helped give Judaism the particular features with which we are familiar in the New Testament. The leaders of the synagogues were the recognized leaders in the Jewish community and were known as elders (Mark 15:1; Luke 7:3-5). They had power to punish wrongdoers, even to the extent of arresting them, whipping them, or expelling them from the synagogue community (Matt 10:17; 23:34; John 9:22; 16:2; Acts 22:19).

Religious services

In design a synagogue was a simple building. It consisted of a main meeting room entered through a porch, with an open court outside. During religious services, women and men sat on opposite sides of the room, with the leaders sitting in the chief seats, facing the audience (Matt 23:6). The chief leader was known as the ruler of the synagogue (Mark 5:22; Acts 18:8). Synagogue services were conducted at least every Sabbath and were under the control of the leaders (Mark 1:21; Luke 13:14; Acts 13:14-15). The service opened with prayers, followed by readings from the Old Testament scrolls. These were kept in a special box and were handed to the reader by an attendant (Luke 4:16-17,20; Acts 15:21). Since many Jews were not familiar with the Hebrew language, a paraphrase or interpretation of the Old Testament readings was usually given. (These paraphrases, known as targums, later became authorized interpretations and eventually were put into writing.) Then followed an address. This was usually based on the previously read portion of Scripture (Luke 4:20-21), and was given either by one of the leaders or by some other suitable person whom the leaders invited (Luke 4:16-17; 6:6; Acts 13:15; 17:10-11; 18:4).

The service was closed with prayers. By the time of Jesus, the people who most influenced the teaching given in the synagogues were the scribes, or teachers of the law. These people had risen to places of power during the centuries leading up to the New Testament era (see SCRIBES), but instead of teaching the law of Moses they taught Judaism, a system of religious regulations that they had developed (Matt 23:2-8; Mark 7:1-5; 12:38-39; Luke 6:6-7). Because of the scribes, the synagogues became more of a hindrance than a help to God’s people. Jesus often came into conflict with the synagogue authorities, and so did the early Christians (Matt 6:2,5; 10:17; 12:9-14; Luke 13:14-15; John 9:22; 12:42; Acts 14:1-2; 17:1-5; 18:4-7; Rev 2:9; 3:9).

SYRIA

The land of Syria bordered Israel to the north and stretched up into the mountains beyond the headwaters of the Euphrates River. The Old Testament mentions Syria chiefly in relation to its wars with Israel during the time of the divided kingdom. The New Testament mentions it chiefly in relation to the expansion of the early church.

Old Testament records

Originally Syria was known as Aram, and some versions of the Bible consistently use ‘Aram’ rather than ‘Syria’ in the Old Testament narratives (see ARAM). The land included parts of Mesopotamia, along with various smaller kingdoms such as Zobah, Geshur and Hamath (Deut 23:4; Judg 3:8; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 3:3; 8:3,9). The capital of Syria during the time of its conflict with Israel was Damascus (1 Kings 11:24; Isa 7:8; see DAMASCUS). The ‘Israel’ with whom Syria fought was the northern part of the divided Israelite nation, as distinct from Judah, the southern part. Syria’s oppression of Israel began, it seems, during the reign of the Syrian king Ben-hadad I (1 Kings 15:16-22).

During the reign of the next king, Ben-hadad II, a combined army of Syria and neighbouring states attacked the Israelite capital, Samaria, but was defeated twice (1 Kings 20:1-31). The prophet Elisha on one occasion healed the commander-in-chief of the Syrian army, and on another was consulted when the Syrian king was ill (2 Kings 5:1-14; 8:7-8). Ben-hadad II was assassinated by Hazael, who then seized the throne for himself. Hazael was a brutal enemy who repeatedly attacked Israel and butchered its people (2 Kings 8:12-15,28; 10:32; 12:17; 13:3,22; Amos 1:3-4). During the reign of the next king, Ben-hadad III, Israel regained much of the territory that it had lost to Hazael (2 Kings 13:25). Syria continued to decline in power, and Israel at one stage took control of Damascus for a brief period (2 Kings 14:28). With the rise of Assyria to power, both Syria and Israel were in danger of being conquered. The Syrian king Rezin and the Israelite king Pekah combined to attack Judah, with the aim of forcing Judah into a three-nation alliance that might be able to withstand Assyria. But Judah appealed to Assyria for help, and Assyria responded by conquering Syria and much of Israel (2 Kings 15:37; 16:5-9; Isa 7:1-9; 17:1-3). This marked the end of Syria as a separate and independent nation (732 BC).

Into the New Testament era

During the latter part of the fourth century BC, Alexander the Great established the Greek Empire throughout eastern Europe and western Asia. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, the empire split into sectors under the control of Alexander’s Greek generals. One of these sectors was centred on Syria, and in 300 BC the city of Antioch was built as the administrative capital of the Syrian sector (see ANTIOCH IN SYRIA). A dynasty of thirteen kings, most of them bearing the name Antiochus, reigned over Syria for about two and a half centuries. At first they commanded a large area stretching as far as Asia Minor in the west and Persia in the east. But over the years they consistently lost territory, till in the end they controlled only Syria itself. (For details of this era see GREECE.) Then, in 64 BC, they were conquered by Rome, and Syria became a province of the emerging Roman Empire (Luke 2:2). Christianity first came to Syria through the efforts of Greek-speaking Jewish Christians who had been forced out of Jerusalem after the execution of Stephen (Acts 8:1; 9:1-2,10,19; 11:19-20). Paul was converted in Syria and carried out his first recorded evangelistic ministry there (Acts 9:1-22; Gal 1:21). He played an important part in the early growth of the church in Antioch (Acts 11:19-26), and when opportunities arose he visited churches throughout the province (Acts 15:41; 18:18-22).