TABERNACLE
When Israel left Egypt to begin a new life as an independent nation, God gave detailed arrangements for its organized religious life. According to these arrangements, Israel’s place of worship was to be a tabernacle, or tent, set up in the centre of the camp. This tabernacle was the symbol of God’s presence, a sign that God dwelt among his people. He was part of them, the centre of their national life. It was known as the tent of meeting (Exod 39:32), for it was the place where God met with his people. It was also called the tent of the testimony (Exod 38:21), to remind the people that within it, in the ark, was the testimony of God, the law, which was to guide and control their lives. The tabernacle was designed so that it could be easily put together, taken apart and transported. It was a prefabricated shrine that the people of Israel took with them on their journey to Canaan and set up at camps along the way. It consisted of a two-roomed timber structure inside a tent, which in turn was set in a large court surrounded by a fence. Within the rooms, and in the open court, were articles of sacred furniture.
Inside the tent
Probably the easiest way to picture the two-roomed structure under the tent is as a box-like frame with a cloth draped over it (as a tablecloth drapes over a table). The structure was 30 cubits long, 10 cubits wide and 10 cubits high (a cubit being about 44 centimetres or 18 inches). It was formed on the sides and rear by wooden frames that fitted vertically into metal bases and were joined horizontally with wooden bars. A row of timber columns formed the front, and another divided the structure into two rooms. All timber was overlaid with gold (Exod 26:15-37). A multi-coloured embroidered linen covering was then draped over the entire structure, forming a ceiling overhead and walls on three sides. Curtains hung on columns formed the entrance and the internal partition (Exod 26:1-6,31-37). A covering of goats’ hair was placed over the linen covering to give added protection (Exod 26:7-13). This covered structure was shielded from the weather by a two-layer tent of animal skins pitched over the whole (Exod 26:14). Though brilliantly coloured inside, outwardly the shrine appeared as simply a tent; hence the name, tabernacle.
The front room of the structure was called the Holy Place and contained three articles of furniture. Against one wall was a table made of wood overlaid with gold. On it were twelve cakes of ‘presence bread’, in symbolic acknowledgment that Israel lived constantly in the presence of God, its provider. The cakes were renewed each Sabbath (Exod 25:23-30; Lev 24:5-9). Against the opposite wall was a sevenheaded ornamented lampstand made entirely of gold (Exod 25:31-40; 26:35; see LAMP). Against the dividing curtain (or veil) was an altar used solely for burning incense. It was made of wood overlaid with gold. The daily offering of incense symbolized the continual offering of the people’s homage to God (Exod 30:1-10; see INCENSE). The room behind the veil was called the Most Holy Place, or Holy of Holies, and was only half the size of the Holy Place. The only piece of furniture in this room was a wooden box, overlaid with gold, known as the ark of the covenant, or covenant box (Exod 25:10-16; 26:34). Its richly ornamented lid, called the mercy seat, was the symbolic throne of the invisible God. The symbolic guardians of this throne were two golden cherubim (Exod 25:17-21; 1 Sam 4:4; see CHERUBIM). In giving this throne the name ‘mercy’, or ‘grace’, God reminded his people that in spite of all their religious exercises, they could be accepted into his presence and receive his forgiveness only by his mercy (Exod 25:22; cf. Heb 4:16). Inside the ark were placed the stone tablets of the law (Deut 10:1-5), and later, Aaron’s rod and the golden pot of manna (Heb 9:4). Only priests could go into the Holy Place (Num 18:1-7;Heb 9:6). Only the high priest could go into the Most Holy Place, and then only once a year, on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:11-15; Heb 9:7; see DAY OF ATONEMENT; PRIEST).
Courtyard and camp
This tabernacle-tent was set in a large court, 100 cubits long and 50 cubits wide, in which all the animal sacrifices were offered. Around the court was a fence of cloth attached to posts, with an entrance on the eastern side, opposite the entrance to the tent. The fence gave protection against desert winds and was high enough to prevent people outside from watching proceedings out of idle curiosity. It separated the tabernacle sufficiently from the camp to help create a feeling of reverence towards the tabernacle and its services (Exod 27:9-19). All animal sacrifices were offered on a large altar that was made of wood overlaid with a metal variously described as bronze, copper or brass. The altar was a hollow box that was either filled with earth to form a mound on which the sacrifices were burnt, or had an internal grid for the same purpose. Halfway up the outside of the altar was a horizontal ledge supported by a grating.
The priests may have stood on this ledge while offering the sacrifices (Exod 27:1-8). Between the bronze altar and the entrance to the tent was a laver, or large basin, in which the priests washed before administering the sacrifices or entering the Holy Place. It also was made of bronze. The priests’ washings had both a practical purpose and a symbolic significance, to demonstrate that cleansing from all uncleanness was necessary in the worship and service of God (Exod 30:17-21; 38:8; cf. 2 Chron 4:6). The people of Israel camped in an orderly arrangement on the four sides of the tabernacle. Nearest the tabernacle, on the eastern side, were the priests. The three family divisions of the Levites were on the other three sides (Num 3:23,29,35,38). Further out were the common people according to their tribes, with three tribes on each of the four sides (Num 2:3,10,18,25).
Construction and maintenance
Building materials for the tabernacle came from the voluntary offerings of the people. They gave so generously that Moses had to restrain them (Exod 25:2; 36:5-7). In making the different parts of the tabernacle, the craftsmen had to conform to the overall pattern and dimensions that God gave (Exod 25:9,40), but they still had plenty of opportunity to use their skills in the structural and ornamental details (Exod 31:1-9). Moses inspected the separate parts of the tabernacle after they were finished (Exod 39:32- 43), then supervised the erection of the whole (Exod 40:1-33). Israelites no doubt saw symbolic significance in the differing values of materials outside and inside the tabernacle. As one moved from the outer court through the Holy Place into the Most Holy Place, the brilliance of the metals and the richness of the cloth hangings increased. It all helped to emphasize the majesty and holiness of Yahweh, the King of Israel who lived among his people, yet at the same time dwelt separately from them in unapproachable glory (Exod 40:34-35). Apart from its symbolic significance to God’s people, the tabernacle was very practically suited to Israel’s circumstances. A tent over a prefabricated frame was most convenient for a travelling people. Cloth hangings were suitable for entrances and partitions.
Timber was of a kind that was plentiful in the region, light to carry, and did not warp or rot easily. Metals were of a kind that would not rust. Some of the pieces of furniture were fitted at the corners with rings, through which carrying poles were placed to make transport easier (Exod 25:12-15,26-28; 27:6-7; 30:4-5). Money for the maintenance of the tabernacle came from a special tax taken from the people whenever there was a national census. The tax was equal for all, but small enough for even the poorest to pay. The rich could gain no advantage. All God’s people had an equal share in maintaining the tabernacle and its services (Exod 30:11-16). Only Levites, however, could carry out the work of cleaning, repairing, erecting, dismantling and transporting the tabernacle. They were to do so according to the specific allocation of duties that God set out (Num 3:21-39; 4:1-33; see LEVITE). (Concerning the sacrifices offered at the tabernacle see SACRIFICE.)
Purpose fulfilled
Throughout their journey from Sinai to Canaan, the people of Israel set up the tabernacle at their camping places (Num 10:33-36; 33:1-49). When they entered Canaan, they set it up in their main camp at Gilgal (Josh 4:19; 10:6,15,43). After the conquest, they shifted the camp to a more central location at Shiloh, where again they set up the tabernacle (Josh 18:1; 19:51). It remained there for most of the next two hundred years (Judg 18:31; 1 Sam 1:3), though there was a period when it was in the neighbouring town of Bethel (Judg 20:26-27). It seems that during Israel’s time of conflict with the Philistines, the tabernacle was destroyed in an enemy attack upon Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61; Jer 7:12-14; 26:6,9). But the Israelites apparently rebuilt it, for later it was set up at Nob (1 Sam 21:1,6; Mark 2:26), and then at Gibeon (1 Chron 16:39; 21:29; 2 Chron 1:3,6). For much of this time the ark of the covenant had become separated from the tabernacle (1 Sam 4:4,11; 7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-2,10-17; 2 Chron 1:3-4; see ARK). When Solomon built the temple in Jerusalem, he dismantled the tabernacle and stored it in the temple (1 Kings 8:1-11).
With the replacement of the movable tent by a permanent building, misunderstandings soon arose. Instead of realizing that God was among his people wherever they were, people thought that the temple in Jerusalem was the only place where he dwelt. When the early Christian preacher Stephen attacked this mistaken attitude, the Jews responded by killing him (Acts 7:44-50). The New Testament book of Hebrews points out that the tabernacle had a purpose in demonstrating important truths concerning sinners’ approach to a holy God. The tabernacle system was a help to people in the era before Christ, but it also pointed to something far better. The truths that the tabernacle demonstrated reached their full expression in the new era that came with Jesus Christ (Heb 6:19-20; 8:1- 5). Although the tabernacle system was imperfect, it was not wrong in principle. It was imperfect only because it suffered those limitations of the pre-Christian era that Christ, and Christ alone, could overcome (Heb 9:1-14,24; 10:19-20).
TALENT
The talent was the heaviest weight used in Israel in Bible times. It weighed approximately 50 kilogram (110 pounds), was equal to 3,000 shekels, and was used mainly in weighing metals (Exod 38:27). Large quantities of money were usually weighed in talents, smaller quantities in shekels (1 Kings 10:10; 2 Kings 15:19; 18:14). Silver was the metal most commonly used for money. Unless otherwise stated, a talent, when used as a monetary unit, meant a talent of silver (1 Kings 16:24; Ezra 8:25-27; Matt 18:23-24; 25:14-16). (See also COINS; WEIGHTS.)
TARSHISH
It is thought that Tarshish was a land in the western Mediterranean region, probably in Spain. It was rich in silver, iron, tin and lead (Jer 10:9; Ezek 27:12). Tarshish was a wealthy trading nation of the ancient world (Ps 72:10; Ezek 27:25) and built large ships to carry goods far and wide to many countries (Jonah 1:3; 4:2). The ships of Tarshish were so successful that they became the model on which people throughout the region built their large merchant ships. As a result, ‘ship of Tarshish’ became the common name for any large ocean-going cargo ship, especially an ore-carrier. The name described a certain kind of ship. It had nothing to do with the place where a particular ship was made, or the place to which or from which it was sailing (1 Kings 10:22; 22:48; Isa 2:16; 23:1,14).
TARSUS
Chief city of the province of Cilicia, Tarsus was a large and important city in the days of the Roman Empire (Acts 21:39; for map see ACTS, BOOK OF). It was famous for its educational institutions, and was considered the centre of learning in Asia Minor (as Athens was in Greece and as Alexandria was in Egypt). Tarsus was Paul’s home town (Acts 9:11,30; 11:25; 22:3) and this may have had some influence on his education. Paul’s style of systematic thinking suggests a Greek educational background of the kind available in Tarsus.
TAX COLLECTOR
The Roman taxation system operated on a plan where each state was divided into a number of regions, in each of which an appointed person was to provide Rome with an agreed amount of tax for that region. This person then had to arrange for others to help him collect the taxes. These taxes included both direct personal taxes and taxes on goods that people transported from one district to another (Matt 9:9). There were various grades of tax collectors (Luke 19:2). All these tax collectors had to collect enough money to send to Rome the amount required, yet have enough left over as wages for themselves. The system gave much scope for corrupt practices (Luke 3:12- 13; 19:8). As a result tax collectors had a bad reputation, and were usually associated with the most despised people in society (Matt 5:46; 9:10; 11:19; 18:17; Mark 2:15-17). Jews hated both the Romans who ruled them and those who collected taxes for Rome, particularly if those tax collectors were Jews. It was almost as if they were traitors to their own people. Yet many tax collectors turned from their sin to believe in Jesus, and one even became a member of Jesus’ chosen group of twelve apostles (Matt 9:9; 10:3; 21:31-32; Luke 18:13; 19:2,9; see MATTHEW).
TEACHER
God desires that his people learn about him and his Word, and therefore he has given teachers to instruct them (Deut 33:10; Eph 4:11). They may be people of different kinds and have different ways of teaching, but their teaching must have its origin in God himself. God is the only true teacher (Ps 25:4; 119:12; Matt 23:8-10; John 6:45; 1 Cor 2:12-13; 2 Tim 3:16).
A variety of teachers
Although God gives special teaching abilities to some, he does not expect these to be the only teachers. Parents are to teach their children the way of God (Deut 11:19; Eph 6:4; 2 Tim 3:14-15), and any godly person may teach others, though not necessarily in public meetings (2 Kings 12:2; Ps 34:11-14; Prov 10:21; Acts 18:26; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 2:24-25;). In Old Testament times, Israel’s religious and civil leaders had a wide-ranging responsibility to teach the law of God to the people (Exod 18:20; Deut 33:10; 2 Chron 17:7-9; Mal 2:7; see PRIEST). Prophets taught in the name of God, bringing his message to a people who were constantly turning from the path of devotion to him (Isa 30:20-21; Jer 23:22; 32:33; see PROPHET). Wisdom teachers gave instruction of a different kind, but it all helped to guide God’s people in the way that was right (Prov 2:1-2; 4:10-11; 7:1- 5; Eccles 12:9,13; see WISDOM LITERATURE). Another group to gain prominence were the scribes, or teachers of the law. The early scribes were godly men who explained and applied God’s law sensibly (Ezra 7:6,10; Neh 8:1-3,8), but by the time of Jesus the scribes had developed into a class of traditionalists whose teachings prevented people from entering the kingdom of God (Matt 15:9; 23:1-7,13; Luke 11:52; see SCRIBES). The title ‘teacher’ (or, in the Hebrew, ‘rabbi’) was in common use in the time of Jesus. People used it when addressing teachers of the law, both good and bad (Matt 23:8; John 3:10), and likewise used it when addressing Jesus (Mark 9:5; John 1:38; 3:2; 6:25; 9:2). The teaching of Jesus, however, was in marked contrast to that of the scribes (Matt 7:28-29; 19:16-22).
Jesus the teacher
Jesus had not been trained in the schools of the rabbis, yet people were amazed at the authority of his teaching (Mark 11:18; Luke 4:22; John 7:15; cf. Acts 4:13). He taught in the synagogues, in the temple, in people’s homes and in the open air (Matt 9:35; Mark 12:35; Luke 5:3; 10:38-39). He taught the masses publicly and his disciples privately (Mark 6:34; 13:3), delivering his messages through discussions, arguments, parables and direct teaching (Matt 13:10; 22:41-46; John 3:1-14; 8:12-20; 16:29; see PARABLES). A central theme of Jesus’ teaching was that he had come from God (John 7:28-29; 8:28), that his teaching was from God (John 7:16) and that through him the kingdom of God had come into the world (Matt 4:23; 5:1-3; Luke 17:21-22; see KINGDOM OF GOD). His teaching was so much a proclamation of the good news of the kingdom that any technical difference between teaching and preaching tended to disappear (Matt 9:35; Mark 6:6,12). (Elsewhere in the New Testament likewise there seems to be little difference between teaching and preaching; see PREACHING.) Although Jesus enlightened people concerning the truth of the gospel, he also challenged them to make a response. His teaching was a call to a life of discipleship (Mark 8:34-38; Luke 9:57-62; 14:25-33; see DISCIPLE).
In training his disciples, Jesus taught them the truth that his Father had given him (John 17:8), so that after his return to the Father, they might carry on the work of the kingdom. They were to proclaim the good news, make disciples of Jesus, and teach them the truth that Jesus himself had taught (Matt 28:19- 20). Jesus promised that in this task they would have his help, through the unseen teacher whom he would send to dwell within them, the Spirit of truth (John 14:18,25-26; 15:26; 16:13; see HOLY SPIRIT).
The work of apostles
Jesus’ inner group of disciples, the apostles, were the teachers in the early church, and believers accepted their teaching as authoritative (Acts 2:42; 5:42). Even the teaching of additional apostles such as Paul was recognized by the church as being an authoritative interpretation of the life, work and teaching of Jesus (Acts 15:35; 1 Cor 14:37; 15:1-5; 1 Thess 2:13; see APOSTLE). As the church grew, God provided for it further by giving to certain people the gift of teaching. These teachers did not have the unique position of apostles, but they had the God-given ability to understand and teach the Old Testament Scriptures and the apostolic doctrines (Rom 12:7; 1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11; 1 Tim 4:13-16). It seems that the office of apostle, having fulfilled the primary purpose for which Jesus appointed it, died out once the church was well established (Eph 2:20). The gift of teacher, however, has continued.
Teachers in the church
In the list of gifts that the risen Christ gave to the church (Eph 4:11), teachers are linked with pastors in a way that indicates that both words refer to the same people. Teachers must be pastors. Through their teaching they care for and feed the flock (Acts 20:28; see PASTOR). They aim to build up the church through producing greater ability among the church members to serve God and understand his Word (Eph 4:12). The instruction that teachers give should cover the whole of God’s Word (Acts 20:27; cf. Matt 28:20), so that Christians will increasingly develop the ability to discern between what is wholesome and what is not, and so grow towards spiritual maturity (Eph 4:13-14; Col 1:28; Heb 5:12-14). At the same time they will help bring healthy growth to the church as a whole (Eph 4:15-16). Teachers should not waste time arguing over senseless matters, but concentrate on the sort of teaching that produces the knowledge of God, a sincere faith and a pure life (Col 1:28; 1 Tim 1:3-5; 4:6-8; 2 Tim 2:23-25; 4:1-2).
Those who are taught have a responsibility to support financially those who teach them (1 Cor 9:14; Gal 6:6; 1 Tim 5:17). At the same time they must beware of false teachers. They must therefore test what they hear, to make sure it is consistent with the Christian faith (1 Thess 5:20-21; 2 Thess 2:15; 1 Tim 6:3; cf. Acts 15:1; 1 Tim 1:7; 2 Tim 4:3-4; 1 John 4:1; 2 John 7-11; see HERESY). Teachers, for their part, must make sure not only that what they teach is true, but that their lives are consistent with their teaching (1 Tim 4:15-16; James 3:1). They should also look for those who show signs of having the gift of teaching and help them develop it (2 Tim 2:2; cf. 1 Tim 4:13-14; Heb 5:12; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT).
TEMPLE
A temple was a house for a god, a place where the god dwelt and was worshipped. This was so in the case of the false gods that Israel’s neighbours worshipped (1 Sam 5:2; 31:10; 1 Kings 16:32; 2 Kings 5:18), and in the case of the one and only true God whom Israel worshipped (Ps 5:7; 134:1; Hag 1:8-9; Matt 12:4; John 2:16; cf. 1 Cor 6:19; Rev 11:19). However, the true God, who is the eternal one and the creator of all things, cannot be contained in a building. The Israelite temple, like the tabernacle before it, was only a symbol of God’s presence. It symbolized that he dwelt among his people (Exod 25:8; 1 Kings 8:10-13; Acts 7:48-50).
God’s original plan for such a dwelling place was the tabernacle, which, being a tent, was a movable shrine that could be set up anywhere. This demonstrated to the people that God was not limited to one locality. The people were to remember this when they built their permanent temple in Jerusalem (2 Sam 7:5-7; Acts 7:44-46). The site of the temple in Jerusalem was a piece of land that David had bought from a local farmer on the hill of Zion (Moriah) (2 Sam 24:18,22-25; 2 Chron 3:1; Ps 74:2; 78:68-69; cf. Gen 22:2). Each of the later temples was built on the same site, on top of the ruins of the previous temple. All three temples were based on the plan of the tabernacle, though they were larger and they included additional features.
Solomon’s temple
Simply described, the temple built by Solomon was a rectangular stone building with a porch added to the front, and three storeys of storerooms added to the sides and rear (1 Kings 6:1-10). Two huge bronze pillars stood in front of the porch. They did not support the roof, but were purely ornamental (1 Kings 7:15-22). Entrance from the porch into the temple was through decorated folding doors (1 Kings 6:33-35). All stonework inside the building was covered with lavishly carved wood panelling, which in turn was overlaid with beaten gold (1 Kings 6:1-10,15,21-22,29). An internal partition divided the main temple into two rooms. The larger front room was called the nave or Holy Place, the smaller rear room the inner sanctuary or Most Holy Place. The front room had windows, but not the rear room. This rear room contained the gold-covered ark of the covenant (covenant box), which symbolized the presence of God, and two winged creatures of gold (cherubim), which were symbolic guardians of the ark (1 Kings 6:31-32; 2 Chron 3:14; see ARK; CHERUBIM). The front room contained two pieces of gold-covered furniture, the altar of incense and the table of ‘presence bread’.
In addition there were ten golden lampstands, five on each of the two side walls (1 Kings 7:48-49; see LAMP). In the open courtyard outside the building (1 Kings 6:36) stood a huge bronze altar of sacrifice (2 Chron 4:1). Also in the courtyard was a bronze laver, or tank, which held water for cleansing rites (1 Kings 7:23-26). There were also ten mobile lavers, each consisting of a bronze basin set in a trolley, the four sides of which were enclosed with decorative panels (1 Kings 7:27-39). The wealth of the temple’s decorations and furnishings made it a target for enemy plunderers. At times the Judean kings themselves plundered it, usually to obtain funds to pay foreign overlords or invaders (1 Kings 14:25-26; 15:18; 2 Kings 16:8; 18:15). Some of Judah’s more ungodly kings brought idols and other articles of foreign religion into the temple, and even introduced heathen practices (2 Kings 16:10-18; 21:4; 2 Chron 25:14). As a result of Judah’s unfaithfulness to God, the temple was frequently damaged or allowed to deteriorate. On a number of occasions godly kings repaired the temple and introduced reforms to restore it to its proper use (2 Kings 12:4-16; 2 Chron 29:3-11; 34:8-13). When the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem in 587 BC, they stripped everything of value from the temple, then smashed or burnt what remained and took the people into captivity (2 Kings 25:8-17; cf. Ps 74:3-7).
Visions of Ezekiel
The captivity in Babylon would last no longer than seventy years, and the prophet Ezekiel wanted to prepare the people to return to their homeland. He therefore presented to them a plan for life in the rebuilt nation. This plan, based on visions that Ezekiel saw, included a temple where God dwelt among his people in an ideal religious and political order. In this order the temple was not in the city, but in a large portion of land marked out for the priests (Ezek 45:1-4). The main building (the Holy Place and the Most Holy Place) was only one part of a huge complex of buildings, courtyards and various facilities for priests and worshippers (Ezek 40:1-49; 41:1-42:14; 43:13-17; 46:19-24). Whatever symbolic value Ezekiel’s visions may have had, his ideal temple was never built.
Zerubbabel’s temple
When Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC, the Persian king gave permission for the captive Jews to return to their land. Under the joint leadership of the governor Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua, those who returned promptly began to rebuild the temple. They soon set up the altar, and in the second year they laid the foundation of the temple, but when local people opposed the builders, the work stopped (Ezra 3:1-3,8-10; 4:1-5,24). For sixteen years nobody worked on the temple. When the prophets Haggai and Zechariah roused the people to action, work restarted and within four years the temple was finished (Ezra 5:1-2; 6:15). Little is known about this temple. It was not as large or as splendid as the former temple (Ezra 6:3-5; Hag 2:3; Zech 4:10), though like the former temple, it had storerooms for the people’s offerings (Neh 13:4-9; Mal 3:10).
The best known events connected with this temple occurred in the second century BC. The leader of the Syrian sector of the former Greek Empire, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, being violently opposed to the Jews, found an excuse to invade and defile the temple. He set up an idolatrous altar, then took animals that the Jews considered unclean and offered them as sacrifices to the Greek gods. This led to a Jewish uprising under the leadership of a group known as the Maccabees. After three years of fighting, the Jews regained religious freedom and rededicated the temple (165 BC). A century later, when the Romans invaded Palestine, the Jews converted the temple into a fortress that was strong enough to withstand the enemy for three months. Finally, in 63 BC, the Romans destroyed it.
Herod’s temple
When Herod, who was not a genuine Jew, won Rome’s appointment as ‘king’ of Judea, he tried to win the Jews’ favour by building them a magnificent new temple. The main building took ten years to build and was finished about 9 BC, but builders were still working on the rest of the huge complex during the time of Jesus’ public ministry (John 2:20). They finished the project in AD 64. The main building consisted of two rooms, the Holy Place and the Most Holy Place, divided by a curtain (Matt 27:51). This building and its associated altar of burnt offering were set in a walled courtyard, which normally only the priests could enter (Luke 1:8-10).
Outside the Court of the Priests was another walled courtyard, known as the Court of Israel. Men could enter this courtyard, but not women. Beyond this was yet another walled courtyard, this one known as the Court of the Women, for it marked the limit beyond which women could not go. Entrance to this court was through the Beautiful gate (Acts 3:10), and inside the court were collection boxes for the temple offerings (Mark 12:41-44). No Gentiles were allowed into any of these courts, and any who attempted to do so risked death (Acts 21:28-31). This fully enclosed area was set within a large open court called the Court of the Gentiles, for it was the only area open to Gentiles. Around the perimeter of this court was a covered area where the teachers of the law taught (Luke 2:46; 19:47; John 10:23-24), where temple merchants carried out their business (John 2:14-16) and where the poor and the sick begged for help (Matt 21:14; Acts 3:11; 5:12,16). In the north-eastern corner of the Court of the Gentiles was the Tower of Antonia. This was probably the praetorium, the palace where the Roman governor stayed when he came to Jerusalem to control the crowds at festival times (Matt 27:27; Mark 15:16; Acts 21:30-37). (Normally the governor lived at Caesarea; Acts 23:33.) The entire temple complex was surrounded by a wall made of huge stones (Mark 13:1).
The new temple
Jesus, being zealous for the true worship of God, condemned the Jews for their misuse of the temple. As a result the Jews became increasingly hostile towards him (John 2:13-22; Mark 11:15-19; cf. Mal 3:1). He condemned their religion as they practised it, and forecast that one of God’s judgments on it would be the destruction of the temple (Mark 13:1-2). Through Jesus, God was now building a new temple. This was not a building made of stones, but a community of people, the Christian church. This is a living temple, a community where God dwells, where his people worship him and where they maintain true holiness (John 4:21-24; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16-18; Eph 2:21-22; 1 Peter 2:4-5; cf. Rev 21:22; 22:1-4). It seems that many of the early Christians did not immediately understand that with the death and resurrection of Jesus, the temple had no further use in God’s purposes for his people.
They continued to go to the temple daily, worshipping, praying and witnessing to the resurrection life of Jesus (Luke 24:52- 53; Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:12,42). Stephen, however, pointed out that if people thought Christianity was still part of the old templebased religion, they were mistaken. The temple was in fact a hindrance to a proper understanding of Christianity (Acts 6:13; 7:44-50). The Jews reacted violently to Stephen’s preaching and killed him; but at least there was now a clear distinction between the old temple-based religion and Christianity. The Christians’ association with the temple was gone for ever (Acts 7:54-60; 8:1-3). Within forty years the Jews also had lost their association with the temple; for in AD 70 the armies of Rome destroyed it (Mark 13:2; Luke 19:41-44). Since then, the Jews have had no temple.
TEMPTATION
In the original languages of the Bible, the words commonly translated ‘temptation’ had a range of meanings. These words were concerned basically with testing. In some cases the purpose of the testing may have been to prove the genuineness or quality of a person or thing. In other cases the purpose may have been to persuade a person to do wrong. In today’s language, ‘temptation’ is usually used in the latter sense, and it is this sense that is the subject of the present article. (For other meanings of the word see TESTING.)
To be expected
God may allow people to meet temptations and trials in order to test their faith, but he will never tempt them to do evil. Rather he wants to deliver them from evil (Matt 6:13; 1 Cor 10:13; James 1:13; 2 Peter 2:9). Satan, not God, is the one who tempts people to do wrong (Gen 3:1-6; 1 Cor 7:5; 2 Cor 11:3; Eph 4:27; 6:11; 1 Peter 5:8-9). Some people blame God when they give in to temptation. The Scriptures point out that the source of their problem lies not with God, but with the sinful desires within their own hearts (James 1:13-14). Sinful human nature creates within people a natural tendency towards sin. This increases the opportunities for temptation and makes them more likely to give in to it (Rom 7:11,14,21; Gal 5:17; Eph 4:22; 1 John 2:15-16; see FLESH). But the temptation itself is not necessarily a sin.
Jesus’ nature was not corrupted by sin, and his behaviour was never spoiled by sin, yet he met temptation constantly (Luke 4:1,13; cf. Matt 16:23; 22:15; Mark 14:35; Luke 22:28; John 6:15; 12:27). In fact, the absence of sin in Jesus was the reason Satan attacked him all the more. Satan had tempted the sinless Adam, and now he tempted the sinless Jesus. But where Adam failed, Jesus triumphed (Matt 4:1-10; cf. Gen 3:1-6). Israel failed temptation in the wilderness, but Jesus, the true fulfilment of Israel, triumphed over temptation in the wilderness (Matt 4:4,7,10; cf. Deut 6:13,16; 8:3). Jesus suffered the sorts of temptations that are common to human beings in general, but because he was victorious over them, he is able to help his people when they are tempted (Heb 2:18; 4:15).
No excuses
Temptation comes in many forms. Satan has many cunning methods, and people can easily get caught in his trap (2 Cor 2:11; 1 Thess 3:5; 1 Tim 6:9). But there can be no excuse for giving in to temptation, as some way of escape is always available (1 Cor 10:13). Christians should not be over-confident in their own ability to overcome temptation (1 Cor 10:12). Instead they should be aware of the weakness of sinful human nature, and give it no opportunity to satisfy its desires (Rom 6:12; 13:14). Although the sin lies in giving in to temptation rather than in the temptation itself, Christians must do all they can to avoid those situations likely to produce temptation (1 Cor 15:33; 2 Tim 2:22). This will require self-discipline as they develop better habits in their behaviour (Col 3:12-13; Gal 5:16), thinking (Rom 8:5; 2 Cor 10:5; Phil 4:8), talking (Eph 5:11-12; Titus 2:8) and praying (Matt 6:13; Mark 14:38). The guiding influence in helping God’s people develop these better habits is the Word of God (Ps 119:11; 2 Tim 3:16-17). The struggle against temptation is more than merely a struggle with the problems of everyday life. It is a battle against the evil powers of Satan (Eph 6:10-12). God has given his Word to his people to equip them for this battle (Matt 4:3-7; Eph 6:16-17), and he has given them the assurance of victory, provided they make the effort to resist the tempter. Each victory strengthens them and enables them to live more confidently and positively in a world still full of temptations (James 4:7; 1 Peter 5:9-10).
TEN COMMANDMENTS
See LAW.
TENT
Because tents could be easily put up and taken down, they were the normal dwelling places of ancient peoples who moved around from place to place with their flocks and herds. They were among the earliest kinds of human dwelling places (Gen 4:20; 9:21; 12:8; 18:1; 26:25; Song of Songs 1:8; Isa 38:12; Jer 49:28-29). Tents were made of the skins of animals, the woven hair of animals, or heavy cloth. The material was stretched over poles and tied with cords to pegs in the ground. Tents were dark and drab externally, but internally they were usually colourful, because of the curtain hangings that divided them into rooms (Song of Songs 1:5; Isa 54:2). Sometimes there were separate tents for men and women (Gen 18:6,9; 31:33).
Armies camped in tents (2 Kings 7:7-8), and the Israelites camped in tents on their journey from Egypt to Canaan (Exod 16:16; 33:8; Num 16:26; 24:5; Deut 1:27). Israel’s place of worship, which they took with them on the journey, was in the form of a tent (Exod 26:14,36; see TABERNACLE). When David conquered Jerusalem he put the ark of the covenant in a tent he had erected for it in the city, in anticipation of the permanent temple he had planned for Jerusalem. This would replace the tabernacle-tent, which at that time was at Gibeon (1 Chron 16:1,39). Bible writers use the tent as a picture of the brief life that men and women have upon the earth. It comes to an inglorious end like a tent that collapses when its cords are cut (Job 4:21). But whereas the physical body is, like a tent, temporary, what God has prepared for believers in the age to come is a permanent home (2 Cor 5:1).
TESTIMONY
See WITNESS.
TESTING
Some older versions of the Bible use the word ‘temptation’ in a variety of ways, some of them with the meaning more of testing. Such testing is an action designed usually to prove the success or failure of a person or thing. This meaning of ‘testing’ is the subject of the present article. Concerning the better known meaning of temptation (that is, to tempt to do wrong) see TEMPTATION. People may test the genuineness of metals by putting them into a fire. The purpose is to remove any impurities, so that the pure metal remains. In like manner God tests his people, allowing them to pass through trials in order to reveal whether their faith is genuine (Deut 8:2; Ps 66:10; Prov 17:3; Isa 48:10- 11; Jer 20:12; 1 Peter 4:12). Those who pass the test find they are purified and strengthened by the experience (Gen 22:1; Deut 8:16; 13:3; Judg 2:22; Heb 11:17; James 1:2-3,12; 1 Peter 1:6-7; see REFINE).
The Bible tells Christians to test, or examine, themselves, to make sure they are really living by faith in Jesus Christ (2 Cor 13:5). This testing, in the sense of examination, must extend to all things, from matters of everyday living to matters concerning the church. As God’s people choose what is worthwhile and reject what is worthless, they will grow towards maturity (Phil 1:10; 1 Thess 5:21; 1 Tim 3:10; Heb 5:14; 1 John 4:1). Arrogant people sometimes try to test God by challenging him to do what they demand as a proof of his knowledge, power or love. Such a challenge is rebellion against God and may bring his punishment (Exod 17:7; Num 14:22; Deut 6:16; Ps 95:8-11; Matt 4:7; Acts 5:9; 15:10; 1 Cor 10:9). Jesus’ opponents showed such an attitude when they challenged him to prove that he was the Son of God (Mark 8:11; 15:29-30; cf. Matt 4:5-7).
THADDAEUS
Little is known of Thaddaeus, apart from his appointment as one of Jesus’ twelve apostles. From the comparison of the lists of names in the four Gospels, it seems that ‘Thaddaeus’ was another name for Judas the son of James (Matt 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:16; John 14:22; Acts 1:13). (In some versions he is called the brother of James and given an alternative name, Lebbaeus.)
THANKSGIVING
The lives of God’s people are to be characterized by the offering of thanksgiving to God always, for everything, and in all circumstances (Eph 5:19-20; Phil 4:6; 1 Thess 5:18). They are to give thanks for blessings, spiritual and physical (Col 1:12; 1 Tim 4:3-4), in their own lives and in the lives of others (Acts 28:15; 2 Thess 1:3; 2:13). Thanksgiving is part of praise, prayer and worship (Ps 95:1-7; 116:17; Col 4:2; Rev 7:12; 11:17). (See also PRAISE; PRAYER; WORSHIP.) Believers should remind themselves constantly to thank God for all his blessings. They can do this by making sure that thanksgiving accompanies all their requests to God (Ps 30:12; 92:1-4; 103:1-5; Phil 4:6; Col 4:2; 1 Tim 2:1). They should be particularly thankful that God, in his love, has chosen them (2 Thess 2:13-14), made them sharers in his grace (1 Cor 1:4), equipped them with faith, hope and love (Col 1:3- 5), and given them a part in the service of the gospel (2 Cor 1:11; Phil 1:4-5). By constantly offering thanks to God, Christians help counter the influence of sin (Eph 5:4). By failing to offer thanks to God, they fail to give him the glory due to him (Luke 17:16-18).
THEBES
The city of Thebes was situated on the Nile River, over five hundred kilometres from its mouth. It was the most important city in Upper Egypt, and from 1570 to 1085 BC, the period of Egypt’s greatest power and splendour, it was the country’s capital. Its Hebrew name was No, and its god was Amon (Jer 46:25; Nahum 3:8). The wealth that poured into Thebes during those five hundred years helped to make the city the most magnificent in all Egypt. One reason for Thebes’ lengthy supremacy was the strong defence that the Nile River provided against enemy invasion. But these defences were not able to withstand the Assyrians, who in 663 BC plundered and destroyed the city (Ezek 30:14-16; Nahum 3:8-10). (For map and other details see EGYPT.)
THESSALONICA
After Alexander the Great established the Greek Empire (fourth century BC), the Greeks built many magnificent cities. One of these was Thessalonica in Alexander’s home state of Macedonia. When the Greek Empire was later replaced by the Roman, Macedonia was made a Roman province, with Thessalonica as its political centre. The city was on the main route from Rome to Asia Minor, and is still an important city today. There is only one recorded occasion on which Paul visited Thessalonica. This was on his second missionary journey, when he founded the church there, despite much opposition from the Jews. The church consisted mainly of Gentiles (Acts 17:1-7; 1 Thess 1:9). Although Paul worked to help support himself while in Thessalonica (1 Thess 2:9; 2 Thess 3:7-8), he received additional support from another Macedonian church, Philippi (Phil 4:16). The church continued to grow after Paul left, and within a short time had spread the gospel throughout the surrounding countryside (1 Thess 1:6-8; 2:13-14). An important man in the church at Thessalonica was Aristarchus, who later went with Paul to Rome and remained there during Paul’s imprisonment (Acts 20:4; 27:1-2; Col 4:10; Philem 24). (For an area map and for details of the two letters Paul wrote to the church in Thessalonica, see THESSALONIANS, LETTERS TO THE.)
THOMAS
It seems, from his name, that the apostle Thomas was a twin. The names Thomas and Didymus come from the words for ‘twin’ in the Aramaic and Greek languages respectively (Matt 10:3; John 11:16). Three incidents show that Thomas was a straightforward person who expressed his feelings openly. The first occurred when Jesus, after leaving Judea to escape the Jews’ attempt to kill him, decided to return. The disciples feared the dangers ahead and tried to dissuade him. When Jesus made it clear that he was determined to go, Thomas showed his courage and his pessimism by suggesting that they go with him so that they might die with him (John 10:39; 11:7-8,16). The second incident occurred as the time drew near for Jesus to return to the Father. He reminded his disciples that they knew where he was going, but Thomas, with characteristic bluntness, replied that they did not (John 14:1-5). The third incident occurred soon after the resurrection, when Thomas refused to believe the report that Jesus was alive. Upon meeting Jesus himself, he readily repented of his doubts and confessed Jesus to be his Lord and his God (John 20:24-29). Thomas was one of the eleven apostles to hear Jesus’ command to evangelize the world (Matt 28:16- 20; Acts 1:6-13). According to tradition, his chief contribution to this task was to take the gospel to India.
THRESHING
See FARMING.
THRONE
People of the ancient world were familiar with the throne as a symbol of kingly power. A king usually sat on his throne when officiating at important ceremonies, when receiving homage or petitions from his people, or when making legal judgments (1 Kings 2:19; 2 Kings 11:19; Esther 5:1; Prov 20:8). Often such thrones were lavishly adorned, befitting the majesty of the king in his exalted position (1 Kings 10:18-20). God is repeatedly pictured in the Bible as the supreme Lord, the king and ruler of the universe who is high and lifted up, exalted on his throne. The angelic guardians of his throne are the cherubim, sometimes called ‘living creatures’ (Ps 80:1; 93:1-5; Isa 6:1-3; Ezek 1:22,26; 10:20-22; Matt 5:34; Rev 4:2,6; 5:11- 14; see CHERUBIM). The lid of the ark of the covenant in the tabernacle was a symbolic throne for the invisible God. Although sinful people have no right to enter God’s presence, God in his mercy allows them to approach him in faith and so receive his forgiveness and help. His throne is therefore called a seat of mercy, a throne of grace (Exod 25:18; 1 Sam 4:4; Heb 4:16; 9:5; see TABERNACLE). Jesus Christ, having come into the world and having lived obediently to his Father even to death, has now been exalted to the highest place in heaven.
This is signified by his being seated at the right hand of the throne of God (Phil 2:6-11; Heb 12:2). He, as the great high priest, is the believer’s mediator before God in heaven, bringing the believer’s real desires to the throne of God (Rom 8:34; Heb 7:24-25; 8:1). The throne symbolizes rule and authority. Jesus Christ, therefore, in being pictured as seated on his throne, is King of kings and Lord of lords. He fulfils the promise given to David of a descendant who would sit on David’s throne and rule for ever (2 Sam 7:12-16; Isa 11:1-9; Luke 1:32-33; Acts 2:30-33; Heb 1:8; Rev 19:16; see KING; MESSIAH). Believers in Jesus will share his reign with him (Matt 19:28; Rev 3:21). But the throne is also a place of judgment, where God will make the final separation between the righteous and the wicked (Matt 25:31-32; Rev 20:11-12; see JUDGMENT).
THYATIRA
Thyatira was an important manufacturing centre in the Roman province of Asia (present-day Turkey). It had factories for the manufacture of clothing, dyes, pottery and brasswork (Acts 16:14; Rev 2:18). Towards the end of the first century, the church in Thyatira was troubled by a woman who was encouraging the Christians to join in idolatrous feasts and their accompanying immoral practices. The apostle John wrote to the church to warn the woman and her followers of the judgment for which they were heading, and to encourage the true Christians to remain faithful to God (Rev 2:19-29).
TIBERIAS
The town of Tiberias was on the western shore of Lake Galilee (also called the Sea of Galilee and the Sea of Tiberias) (John 6:1,23). Whereas towns on the northern shore were largely Jewish and were the scene of much of Jesus’ ministry, Tiberias was almost entirely Gentile. The Bible does not record that Jesus ever visited the town. (For map and other details see PALESTINE.)
TIGRIS
Two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, flowed through Mesopotamia, a fertile region that in biblical times was part of the lands of Aram, Assyria, Babylon and Persia (Gen 2:14-15; Dan 10:4). The Tigris is rarely mentioned in the Bible, though it features as the river on which Assyria’s capital, Nineveh, was built (Nahum 2:6-8; cf. 3:8; see NINEVEH).
TIME
Life in the present world is inseparably bound up with time. Time is part of God’s created order (Gen 1:14; Heb 1:2). By contrast God, being the eternal one and the creator of all things, is not limited in any way by time. This means that his view of time is different from that of human beings (Isa 57:15; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:16; 2 Peter 3:8; see ETERNITY). Nevertheless, God is able to use time to bring his purposes to fulfilment (Gal 4:4), and he gives it to the people of his creation to use also (Eccles 5:18; 8:15).
Men and women are therefore responsible to God for the way they use their time (1 Peter 1:15-17). (Concerning systems for reckoning time see DAY; MONTH.) As a wise, powerful and loving Creator, God sees that everything happens at the right time to maintain the world for the benefit of his creatures (Deut 11:14; 2 Kings 4:16; Eccles 3:11; Acts 14:17). He controls history, often announcing in advance the precise time for his actions (Exod 9:18; Isa 37:33- 38; Acts 17:26). (Concerning the time element in the writings of the prophets see PROPHECY.) Jesus’ birth, ministry, death and resurrection all took place at the time God had appointed (Gal 4:4; Mark 1:15; John 8:20; 12:23,27; 17:1). Christ’s return will also occur when God’s time has come (Mark 13:32; Acts 1:7; Rev 14:15; see DAY OF THE LORD).
Because history is moving constantly towards its climax, Christians must use their time wisely (Ps 90:12; Col 4:5). They should see time not merely as a period measured by a clock or a calendar, but as an opportunity given them to use. This does not mean that they have to create unnecessary pressure by squeezing as much as they can into their time, but that they should live and behave as befits God’s people (Eph 5:15-17; 1 Peter 4:1-3).
The prospect of Christ’s return is an incentive not to hectic activity but to more Christlike conduct (Rom 13:11-14; 1 John 2:18,28). God wants people to use their time in worthwhile work, but his gift of the Sabbath shows that he also wants them to have time for rest (Exod 23:12; cf. Gen 2:2-3). People should not waste their time through laziness or worthless activities (Prov 10:4-5; 12:11; 18:9; 2 Thess 3:11-12; 1 Tim 5:13), but neither should they spend their time in constant activity that leaves no time for proper relaxation (Neh 13:15-21; Eccles 2:21-23; Amos 8:5; cf. Mark 6:30-31; Luke 10:40-42; see WORK). In their concern for time, people should not try to calculate when present life will end. Rather they should use the opportunity of the present life to accept God’s salvation and grow in Christian character (Acts 1:6-8; 2 Cor 6:1-2; Heb 3:13; 4:7; 5:12-14; 10:25; cf. Luke 12:16-20; James 4:13-16).
TIMOTHY
Most of the Bible’s references to Timothy arise out of his close connection with Paul. The relationship between the two was such that Paul called Timothy his son, and spoke often of his love for Timothy and Timothy’s devotion to him (1 Cor 4:17; Phil 2:19-20; 1 Tim 1:18).
Fitted for service
Timothy was born of a Greek father and a Jewish mother, and was brought up to know God. This was largely because his mother and grandmother taught him the Bible (Acts 16:1; 2 Tim 1:5; 3:14-15). He apparently first came in contact with Paul when Paul moved through the Galatian towns of Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe on his first missionary journey (2 Tim 3:10-11; cf. Acts 13:14-15:22). At that time Timothy was probably only a teenager. By the time Paul passed through the Galatian towns again three years later, Timothy had so grown in his Christian life that Paul decided to take him as his assistant (Acts 16:1-3). In this he had the backing of Timothy’s home churches, whose leaders publicly acknowledged Timothy’s spiritual gifts (1 Tim 4:14). At this time Paul had Timothy circumcised, in the hope that this would gain acceptance for Timothy in the Jewish communities they wanted to reach with the gospel (Acts 16:3). Timothy was not of naturally bold or forceful character. For this reason Paul repeatedly urged him to be more confident. Often Paul gave him tasks that would develop courage and win him greater respect throughout the churches (1 Cor 16:10-11; 1 Tim 1:3; 4:12-16; 2 Tim 1:6-8; 4:1-2).
Missionary travels
After travelling with Paul through Troas, Philippi, Thessalonica and Berea to Athens, Timothy was entrusted with his first individual mission. Paul sent him back to Thessalonica to help the young church. The report that Timothy brought to Paul provided the basis for Paul’s first letter to the Thessalonians (Acts 17:15; 1 Thess 3:1-2,6). By this time Paul was in Corinth, and Timothy helped in the preaching there (2 Cor 1:19). During Paul’s three-year stay in Ephesus (on his third missionary journey), Timothy was sent through Macedonia to Corinth, where he had to deal with serious disorders in the church (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10). In due course he returned to Ephesus, and later accompanied Paul to Macedonia, from where Paul wrote the letter known as 2 Corinthians (2 Cor 1:1). He was still with Paul when Paul wrote to the Romans from Corinth (Rom 16:21). A short time later he was among the group of leading Christians who gathered in Troas to go with Paul to Jerusalem (Acts 20:4-6). In Palestine Paul was imprisoned for two years (Acts 24:27). After that he was sent to Rome, where he was held prisoner for another two years (Acts 28:16,30).
The letters that Paul wrote during this time indicate that Timothy was with him in Rome (Phil 1:1; Col 1:1; Philem 1). Upon his release, Paul set sail again, one of his travelling companions being Timothy. Upon coming to Ephesus, they found the church there troubled by false teaching. When Paul had to leave for Macedonia, he left Timothy behind in Ephesus. From Macedonia Paul then wrote a letter to Timothy to encourage him in his difficult work (1 Tim 1:3). Some time after this, the Roman authorities arrested Paul and took him to Rome again. He knew that this time he faced execution, and wrote once more to Timothy, asking him to come to Rome quickly (2 Tim 4:6-9). It is not known whether Timothy reached Rome before Paul was executed, but it is known that later Timothy himself was imprisoned for a time, then released (Heb 13:23). (See also TIMOTHY, LETTERS TO.)
TIMOTHY, LETTERS TO
Paul’s letters to Timothy and Titus are commonly known as the Pastoral Letters. In them Paul shows a deep concern for the personal responsibilities that he had entrusted to Timothy and Titus in the places where he had left them. They show the warm personal relationship that Paul had with his fellow workers. They also show how church life had developed over the years since Paul first set out on his missionary travels.
Background to 1 Timothy
Towards the end of the book of Acts, Paul was taken prisoner to Rome and kept there for two years (Acts 28:16,30). In letters he wrote during that time, he expressed the hope that he would soon be released and so be able to visit churches in various places again (Phil 1:27; 2:24; Philem 22). Paul’s hopes almost certainly came true, but since the book of Acts had by this time been completed, it contains no references to Paul’s later travels. Paul’s letters, however, provide information that enable us to work out at least some of his movements. One place that Paul visited after leaving Rome was the island of Crete, where he found that the churches were badly in need of help. After staying a while, he sailed on, but he left Titus behind to help the churches of Crete further (Titus 1:5).
When Paul came to Ephesus he found similar problems. Many years earlier he had warned the elders of the Ephesian church that false teachers would create confusion among them (Acts 20:29-30), and now that had happened. The false teaching concerned some important matters, but contained much senseless talk on unimportant matters. People had tried to copy the Jewish teachers of the law by developing imaginative theories based on ancient myths, legends and genealogies (1 Tim 1:3-7; 6:3-5). Besides being unprofitable, the teaching created arguments and confusion. Some of it was dangerous to Christian faith, with the result that Paul had to put the more serious offenders out of the church (1 Tim 1:19-20). In due course Paul left Ephesus for Macedonia, but he left Timothy behind to help restore order and stability in the church. However, Paul was concerned for Timothy and the Ephesian church, so from Macedonia he wrote to give Timothy encouragement and direction in his difficult task. Paul felt at times that Timothy lacked boldness, and he hoped this letter would give Timothy the confidence he needed. At the same time Paul wrote a similar but shorter letter to Titus.
Contents of 1 Timothy
Paul begins his letter to Timothy with a warning about the false teachers. He contrasts the wrong kind of teaching given at Ephesus with the gospel that he preaches (1:1-11), and then shows from his experiences that the truth of this gospel is sufficient for even the greatest of sinners (1:12-20). In view of the disorder created by the false teachers, Paul gives Timothy instruction concerning the orderly arrangement that should characterize the church’s life. He speaks of prayer and teaching, and of the conduct of both men and women in church meetings (2:1-15). After listing some basic requirements for elders and deacons (3:1-13), he contrasts the straightforward truth of the gospel with the deceptive nonsense taught by the false teachers (3:14-4:5).
He advises Timothy how to deal with the false teachers and how to exercise his own gifts for the maximum benefit of all (4:6-16). The final section of the letter deals with the various kinds of people within the church. It gives instruction concerning behaviour towards people in different age categories (5:1-2), care for widows (5:3- 16), appointment and support of church leaders (5:17-25), attitudes of slaves and masters (6:1-2), treatment of false teachers (6:3-10), self-discipline and courage in God’s servants (6:11-16) and the dangers of wealth (6:17-19). It concludes with an encouragement to Timothy to persist with the true Christian teaching and not to waste time arguing over senseless issues (6:20-21).
Background to 2 Timothy
Some time after writing 1 Timothy and Titus, Paul left northern Greece. The Bible gives no details of route he followed, but among the places he visited was Corinth in southern Greece (2 Tim 4:20). He also visited Miletus, a town near Ephesus in western Asia Minor (2 Tim 4:20), and Troas, a town farther north (2 Tim 4:13). It seems that soon after this, Paul was arrested and taken to Rome once more. From Rome he wrote his final letter, 2 Timothy (2 Tim 1:8; 2:9). When the government authorities in Rome laid their charges against Paul, former friends deserted him. This was a great disappointment to Paul, but God protected him from violence and gave him the opportunity to make known the gospel to his captors (2 Tim 4:16-17).
Paul knew he had little chance of being released; he expected rather to be executed (2 Tim 4:6-8). He therefore urged Timothy to come to Rome as quickly as possible (2 Tim 4:9), and to bring Mark with him (2 Tim 4:11). (Mark was probably working in Colossae, a town not far from Ephesus; cf. Col 4:10.) Paul was lonely in prison. He had been visited by Onesiphorus of Ephesus (2 Tim 1:16-18) and by some of the local Roman Christians (2 Tim 4:21), but only Luke was able to stay with him (2 Tim 4:11). Various friends and fellow workers had gone to different places in the service of God, though Demas, who had been faithful to him during his previous imprisonment, had now left him for no good reason (2 Tim 4:10,12; cf. Col 4:14). Apart from giving Timothy details concerning his circumstances in Rome, Paul wanted to give him added encouragement concerning the church in Ephesus. The Ephesian church was still troubled by false teaching, and Paul wanted Timothy to stand firm in his defence of the gospel.
Contents of 2 Timothy
The letter opens with Paul’s encouraging Timothy to exercise his God-given gifts with boldness and to defend the gospel against all attacks (1:1-14). He mentions Onesiphorus as an example of wholehearted faithfulness (1:15-18), and impresses upon Timothy the need for endurance (2:1-13). Paul then deals specifically with the problem of the false teachers. He urges Timothy to concentrate on the main truths of the Christian faith and to avoid useless arguments (2:14-26). He warns that opposition to the truth of God will increase (3:1-9). In view of this, Timothy is to be an example to all, through enduring suffering patiently and preaching the Word constantly (3:10-4:5). Paul looks back on his own service for God with satisfaction (4:6-8), and concludes with details and advice in relation to his present circumstances in Rome (4:9-22).
TITHES
It seems to have been a custom from very early times for people to give a tithe (i.e. a tenth) of their goods to God as an act of worship and thanks. In this way they acknowledged God as the supreme controller of life’s events and the sole giver of life’s blessings. The custom existed as a voluntary act of devotion long before it became compulsory practice under the law of Moses. The Bible records two pre-Mosaic examples of tithing. Abraham, on gaining a notable victory in the land God had promised him, offered to God a tithe of the goods he had seized in battle (Gen 14:17-24; Heb 7:4-10). Jacob, on fleeing for safety to a distant land, promised to give God a tithe of his possessions if God brought him back safely (Gen 28:20-22). In both cases the offering of the tithe was an acknowledgment that God was the sovereign controller in human affairs and the giver of all gifts.
The law of Moses
Under the law of Moses, Israelites had to give to God one tenth of all crops, fruit, flocks and herds. The tenth that they offered had to be an honest sample of the whole, not an inferior portion that they had no use for themselves. When tithing animals, for example, the owner counted the animals as they passed through the gate, setting aside every tenth one for God, regardless of whether it was good or bad (Lev 27:30,32-33). If people so desired, they could offer money instead of their produce or animals. The amount they paid was the value of the goods plus a fifth. This additional fifth was a sort of fine, since they were keeping for their own use something that rightly belonged to God (Lev 27:31). The tithes were paid to the Levites, and so became the chief source of the Levites’ income. Since the Levites spent their time in religious service for the people, they had no time to earn a normal living. This constant income from the tithes was payment for their work and compensation for their lack of a separate tribal area in Canaan (Num 18:21-24). Having received tithes, the Levites then had to pay tithes. Their income was the produce of other people’s farms, but when they offered a tenth of this produce to God, he accepted it as if it were their own. The Levites’ tithes became the income of the priests (Num 18:25-32). People presented their tithes by taking them to the central place of worship, where, with their households and the Levites, they joined in a joyous ceremonial meal (Deut 12:5-7,17-19). If the offerers lived so far from the tabernacle (or later the temple) that transporting their goods was a problem, they could sell their tithes locally and take the money instead (Deut 14:22-27). Every third year the offerers had to distribute this tithe (or perhaps an additional tithe) in their own locality, so that the local poor could benefit from it as well as the Levites. In this case the offerers, after distributing their tithes, had to go to the central place of worship and declare before God that they had done according to the divine command (Deut 14:28-29; 26:12-15). In addition to these compulsory tithes, there were sacrifices and offerings of various kinds. Some of these were required by law, but others were made voluntarily (2 Chron 31:5-6; Neh 10:37-38; 12:44; Mal 3:8-10). (For details see FEASTS; FIRSTBORN; FIRSTFRUITS; SACRIFICE; VOWS.)
New Testament times
In later years Jewish teachers of the law added their own laws to those given by Moses. The result was that by the time of Jesus, they had made the tithing system a heavy burden on the Jewish people. These teachers instructed Jews to keep the laws of tithing even to the smallest detail, assuring them that in doing so they would gain God’s favour. But they neither taught nor practised the more important matters of faith, love, mercy and justice (Matt 23:4,23; Luke 11:42,46; 18:12). The New Testament does not teach tithing as a binding law for Christians. Nevertheless, it upholds the principle of proportionate giving, the amount people give depending on the amount they earn (1 Cor 16:2; 2 Cor 8:12-14). God wants people to make their offerings willingly and joyfully, not under compulsion or grudgingly (2 Cor 8:3; 9:7). But he adds the promise that they need not fear poverty if they give much, because God can increase his supply so that the generous giver still has more than he needs (2 Cor 9:8-10). (See also GIVING.)
TITUS
It seems that Titus was originally from Antioch in Syria. When Paul and Barnabas took a gift from the Antioch church to the Jerusalem church, Titus went with them (Acts 11:27-30; Gal 2:1). By nationality he was a Greek (Gal 2:3).
Paul’s representative to
Corinth Much of the Bible’s information about Titus has to do with the church in Corinth. From Ephesus Paul had written at least one letter to the Corinthians, and had made a rushed visit to Corinth in an effort to deal with serious problems in the Corinthian church. When he heard that his efforts had only made people more rebellious, he wrote a severe letter and sent it to Corinth with Titus, his special representative (2 Cor 2:3-4,9; 7:8; 12:18). (For map see under TIMOTHY.) Paul’s plan was for Titus to return from Corinth via Troas. Being eager to hear of the Corinthians’ response to his letter, Paul went to Troas to meet Titus. Unable to wait patiently, he then went across to Macedonia in the hope of finding Titus there (2 Cor 2:12-13). Titus met Paul with the news that the severe letter had produced the desired results (2 Cor 7:5-6,13-15). Although this letter has not been preserved in the Bible, the letter that Paul wrote in response to Titus’ good news has. It is called 2 Corinthians and it was taken to Corinth by Titus (2 Cor 8:16-18). Titus was also Paul’s appointed representative to encourage the Corinthian church to participate enthusiastically in an important project Paul was organizing. Paul was collecting money among the Gentile churches of Asia Minor and Greece to take to the needy Jewish Christians in Jerusalem (2 Cor 8:1-6,16-24).
Activities in other places
Many years later, after Paul had been released from his first imprisonment in Rome, Titus went with Paul to Crete to try to correct disorders in the churches there. When Paul left, Titus stayed behind to help the churches further (Titus 1:5). The book of Titus in our Bible is the letter Paul wrote to Titus at this time (see TITUS, LETTER TO). Titus was such a valued worker that Paul could not leave him in Crete indefinitely. He therefore wrote to advise Titus that soon someone would come to take his place. Titus then apparently went to Nicopolis on the west coast of Greece to meet Paul as planned (Titus 3:12), and from there went north to Dalmatia (2 Tim 4:10). That is the last mention of him in the biblical record.
TITUS, LETTER TO
TITUS, LETTER TO Paul’s letter to Titus is in many ways similar to his first letter to Timothy, though it is much shorter. Paul apparently wrote the two letters about the same time. After his two-year imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:16,30), Paul went on further travels. Among the places he visited was the Mediterranean island of Crete, where he found that the churches were in a state of confusion. He stayed a while to help the churches through their difficulties, but he wanted to visit other cities and countries as well. He therefore left Titus behind in Crete to help correct the problems (Titus 1:5), while he himself sailed on to Ephesus. There were problems in Ephesus also, but Paul could stay there for only a limited time. When he moved on to Macedonia, he left Timothy behind to carry on the work (1 Tim 1:3). (For map see under TIMOTHY.) From Macedonia Paul wrote two letters, one to Titus in Crete, the other to Timothy in Ephesus. Both letters were intended to encourage Paul’s fellow workers in the tasks they faced, particularly in matters concerning leadership and teaching in the church. (For details of Paul’s travels and writings of this time see TIMOTHY, LETTERS TO.)
Contents of the letter
After a lengthy introduction (1:1-4), Paul reminds Titus of the need to appoint elders in the Cretan churches and of the personal qualities that should characterize those elders. In particular they must be able to recognize and resist false teaching (1:5-16). Paul gives Titus instructions concerning the behaviour that people of different ages and social backgrounds should exercise towards each other in the church (2:1-10). He reminds Titus that the grace of God changes lives (2:11-15), and that Christians must demonstrate this by the way they live (3:1-7). Titus must therefore teach the great truths of the Christian faith, and not waste time arguing over senseless topics (3:8-11). The letter closes with a few notes concerning Paul’s plans for himself and Titus in the months ahead (3:12-15).
TOMB
See FUNERAL.
TONGUE
Speech is one of the most powerful forces human beings have available to them, for by their words they can bring great benefit or do great damage (Prov 12:18,25; 15:1,4; James 3:5,9). What they say and the way they say it are therefore matters of the highest importance. Yet all people have difficulty with them. The person who can control the tongue can control the whole self (James 3:1-4,7-8; cf. Ps 141:3).
Control of the tongue
The root of people’s problem with the tongue is the evil heart within them. Sin has corrupted human nature, and the wrong within people shows itself in an uncontrolled tongue (Mark 7:21-23; James 3:6). Christians, being indwelt by the Spirit, have divine help in resisting the pressures of the old nature. The Spirit teaches them to control the tongue and makes them realize the inconsistency of using the same tongue to bless God and curse their fellows (Gal 5:17,22; Eph 4:30-31; Col 4:6; Titus 2:8; James 1:26; 3:9-12; see BLESSING; CURSE; MALICE; PRAISE). Wrong use of the tongue does not have to be as obvious as cursing in order to be damaging. It may consist only of idle chatter, because even that can easily involve harmful gossip (Prov 11:9,13; 26:18-22; Eccles 5:3; see GOSSIP). Since the more a people speak the more likely they are to sin, wise people will limit their words and control the way they expresses them. Fools, by contrast, talk at length and so proclaims their folly (Prov 10:19; 12:23; 15:2; 17:27-28; 18:2,6-7; 2 Cor 11:16-19; Eph 5:4; see BOASTING; FOOLISHNESS). Although people may control their words, such control must be sincere. If they simply uses smooth words to hide evil feelings, they are hypocrites (Ps 41:5-6; 55:21; Prov 10:18; 26:23-25; Matt 22:15-18; 23:28; see HYPOCRISY). They must be truthful and straightforward with the words they use. The cunning twisting of words can be merely a form of lying (Prov 12:19; 2 Cor 4:2; Eph 4:25; 1 Peter 3:10; see LIE). While people should always speak the truth, they should do so in a spirit of love. Their words give an indication of the quality of their character (Prov 10:11,20-21; 16:23; Eph 4:15; James 1:19; see TRUTH).
Christian witness
Words are an indication of people’s relationship with Christ. They may confess Christ as Lord, or deny all knowledge of him (Rom 10:9; Matt 26:70-74; see CONFESSION; DENIAL). But a confession of faith may be false (1 Tim 1:19), and a denial of Christ may be a temporary failure that a person soon corrects (John 21:15-17). Everyday speech, rather than an occasional public declaration, is often a better indication of a person’s spiritual condition. Such everyday speech will be used as evidence on the day of judgment (Matt 12:36-37). Christian preachers in particular have to be careful with their words. They know that words are persuasive (Prov 16:21), and therefore they must be careful not to use their speaking abilities to gain control over people. They should want people to have their faith rooted in God and his Word, not in the preacher and his style (1 Cor 2:1-5; 3:5-7; 2 Cor 4:2; 11:6; 1 Thess 2:4; see PREACHING).
TONGUES
When the Bible says that people spoke in tongues (‘other tongues’ or ‘strange tongues’), it means that their speech was in words that were not of their own language and that they did not understand, unless someone interpreted them. Beyond that simple definition, general statements about tongues become difficult, because of the different sorts and uses of tongues in the New Testament.
In the book of Acts
The birth of the New Testament church took place in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost, when about 120 disciples received the Holy Spirit as Jesus had promised (Acts 2:1-4; cf. 1:4-5). On that occasion the disciples spoke in tongues that people from other linguistic groups understood as their native languages (Acts 2:4-11). There are only two other places in Acts where the writer records that people spoke in tongues, but in neither case is it clear whether the tongues were languages already in use or something completely different (Acts 10:44-46; 19:1-6). On each occasion there seems to have been a special reason for the people’s speaking in tongues, as each case is a departure from what had been normal till that time. The speaking in tongues was a striking outward and visible demonstration that the people concerned had received the Holy Spirit and were introduced into the church the same as the original disciples were on the Day of Pentecost. (See also BAPTISM WITH THE SPIRIT.)
In Paul’s letters
Tongues that were spoken in the normal meetings of the church seem to have had a different purpose. They were a gift that the Holy Spirit gave to certain people to exercise in their praise to God (1 Cor 12:10,30; 14:2). People were to use the gift publicly only if someone could interpret the words in the normal language of the worshippers, so that all present could benefit. This indicates that whereas the tongues referred to in Acts were irresistible, those referred to in Corinthians were under the control of the speaker (1 Cor 14:13,27-28). Also, those who spoke in tongues in the church were to do so one at a time, and no more than two or three in all (1 Cor 14:27). It seems that the languages spoken in these cases (i.e. in the church) were different from any known languages. The Christians at Corinth, still influenced by attitudes from their former idolatrous days, were apparently impressed by these tongues, and considered that those who spoke them were spiritually superior. However, the situation got out of control, and people made some unusual, even blasphemous, statements. According to Paul, this was evidence that those who spoke in tongues were not necessarily speaking by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 12:1-3; cf. 1 John 4:1-3).
Although Paul allowed the gift of tongues, he was cautious in encouraging people to seek it. He encouraged them rather to seek those gifts that proclaimed God’s Word and consequently built up the hearers (1 Cor 12:28-31; 14:3-5). Any speaking that took place in the church had to have meaning to the audience (1 Cor 14:6-12,19). It had also to have meaning to the speaker, for he was not likely to be spiritually built up if he did not understand what he was saying (1 Cor 14:13-15). The Corinthians’ concern for the spectacular demonstrated their immaturity, and their misuse of tongues brought dishonour on the church (1 Cor 14:20-25). Like all the gifts of the Spirit, the gift of tongues was given to only some in the church, and it could be wrongly used or falsely copied (1 Cor 12:3,7,10,30; 13:1). Paul therefore emphasized that the evidence of the Spirit’s work in people’s lives was not whether they spoke in tongues, but whether their lives displayed the fruit of the Spirit. And the fruit of the Spirit is Christlike character (Gal 5:22-23; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT).
TRACHONITIS
The region of Trachonitis lay to the north-east of Palestine, between Lake Galilee and Damascus. It was on the northern edge of the territory known in Old Testament times as Bashan (Num 32:33; Deut 32:14; see BASHAN). At the time Jesus began his public ministry, the governor of Trachonitis was Philip, a son of Herod the Great (Luke 3:1). (For map and other details see HEROD.)
TRADITION
In any society traditions develop as beliefs and practices are handed on from one generation to the next. The Jews of Jesus’ day had many traditions. Some of these had been taught in the law of Moses (Luke 2:27,41-42), and others had grown up over the centuries (Luke 1:9). Many of the later traditions had been developed and taught by the scribes and Pharisees, and brought Jesus into conflict with the Jewish religious leaders (Matt 23:4-16; see SCRIBES; PHARISEES). Jesus was not opposed to Jewish traditions. In fact, he kept some of them himself (Luke 4:16; John 10:22-23). But he was opposed to the teaching of traditions as binding on people. The Jewish leaders taught human traditions as if they were God’s commandments; worse still, they rejected the genuine commandments of God in order to keep their traditions (Mark 7:7-13; cf. Col 2:8). The tradition that Christians are to keep is twofold. First, they must keep the teaching passed down from Jesus through the apostles and recorded in the New Testament (Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 11:23; 15:3; 2 Tim 1:13-14; Jude 3; see GOSPEL). Second, they must maintain the standard of behaviour demanded by that teaching (1 Cor 11:1-2; Phil 4:9; 2 Thess 2:15; 3:6; see OBEDIENCE).
TRANSFIGURATION
Jesus’ transfiguration took place on a high mountain, possibly Mt Hermon, not far from Caesarea Philippi in northern Palestine (Matt 16:13; 17:1). The event was a revelation of Christ’s glory, witnessed by only three chosen disciples. In coming into the world, Jesus had laid that glory aside, but now it reappeared briefly, displayed through a human body. It was also a foretaste of the glory that Christ would receive after he had completed the work that he had come to do (Matt 17:2; John 17:4-5). Moses and Elijah, the two people of the Old Testament era who appeared with Jesus, possibly symbolized the law and the prophets (Matt 17:3).
Jesus was God’s chosen one, to whom the Old Testament pointed. Their conversation with Jesus about his coming death confirmed what Jesus had told his disciples a few days earlier, namely, that though he was the Messiah, he was also the suffering servant. Though he was a glorious figure of heavenly origins, he had to die a shameful death (Luke 9:30- 31; cf. Matt 16:16,21). This was further confirmed in the words that the Father spoke from heaven. His statement of approval of his Son combined words from one of David’s messianic psalms with words from one of the servant songs of Isaiah (Matt 17:5; cf. Ps 2:7; Isa 42:1). The Father’s final words, ‘Hear him’, indicated that this one, besides being the kingly Messiah and the suffering servant, was the great prophet who announced God’s message to the world (Matt 17:5; cf. Deut 18:15; Acts 3:22-26). The entire transfiguration event showed God’s satisfaction with all that Jesus had done and with all that he intended to do as the climax to his ministry approached. (See also MESSIAH; SERVANT OF THE LORD.)
TREATY
Treaties between people or nations were common in Bible times, as they are today. Such treaties were formal agreements that dealt with matters of mutual concern, such as peace, security and trade (Gen 21:25-33; 26:28-30; 1 Kings 9:26-28; 20:34; Isa 7:3; 30:1-5; 31:1). God warned the Israelites of Moses’ time that when they entered Canaan, they were not to make treaties with the former people of the land, but destroy them. In this way Israel would avoid the possibility of moral and religious corruption through adopting Canaanite practices (Exod 34:12-16).
Nevertheless, in the centuries that followed, a number of Israelite kings made treaties with neighbouring nations. One danger of this practice was that it led to the possibility of moral and religious corruption, because the two parties to the treaty usually paid respect to each other’s gods. The treaty was sometimes strengthened by a marriage between members of the two royal families, which gave further opportunity for the introduction of foreign religious practices into Israel (1 Kings 3:1; 11:1-6; 16:30-33). A treaty may also have been a sign of a lack of faith. This was particularly so when Israel (or Judah) trusted for military victory in an alliance with a foreign nation instead of trusting in God (1 Kings 15:18- 20; Isa 30:1-3,15). Such a treaty would lead inevitably to political and religious domination by the foreign nation in whom Israel trusted (2 Kings 16:7-10; Isa 39:3-7; Hosea 7:8-10). By becoming a party to the treaty, Israel broke its covenant with God and so brought God’s judgment upon itself (Hosea 7:11-13; 8:8-10; see COVENANT).
TREES
The two kinds of tree most often mentioned in the Bible are the fruit bearing trees, the fig and the olive (Deut 8:8; Mark 11:1,3; see FIG; OLIVE). The tree most valued for making buildings and furniture was the cedar. It grew in Lebanon and was the most beautiful, enduring and expensive timber available (Isa 2:12-13; 10:34; 35:2; 60:13; see LEBANON). The tabernacle, along with its furniture, was constructed of acacia wood, a timber that was readily available in the Sinai region. Acacia wood, being light, was very suitable for a portable structure such as the tabernacle (Exod 25:10; 26:15). Among the other trees mentioned in the Bible are algum (2 Chron 2:8; 9:10), cypress (2 Chron 2:8), plane (Isa 60:13), myrtle (Isa 41:19; Neh 8:15), balsam (2 Sam 5:23), oak (Judg 6:11; 2 Sam 18:9), willow (Job 40:22; Ps 137:2), sycamine (Luke 17:6), broom (1 Kings 19:4), lotus (Job 40:22) and palm (Exod 15:27; Ps 92:12).
TRIBES
Israel was divided into twelve tribes according to the twelve sons of Jacob (Gen 35:22-26). In the division of Canaan, the tribe of Levi received no allotment of its own but was given cities within all the other tribes (Num 18:24; 35:1-8; see LEVITE). Joseph, by contrast, received two tribal allotments, one for each of his two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh. This double portion was the inheritance of the firstborn, an inheritance that Joseph received instead of the eldest son, Reuben (Gen 48:13-20; 49:22-26; 1 Chron 5:1- 2). The arrangement for dividing Canaan between the twelve tribes had two main features. First, the area of land for each tribe was in proportion to the population of the tribe. Second, the location of each tribe within the land was decided by drawing lots (Num 26:52-56). By their own choice, the tribes of Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh did not settle in Canaan itself (i.e. the land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea). Instead they settled in the good pasture lands on the eastern side of the Jordan River. The remaining nine and a half tribes settled in Canaan (Josh 13:7-8). Judah and Simeon settled in the south. Benjamin, Dan, Ephraim and the other half of Manasseh settled in the centre. Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali and Asher settled in the north. (For details see separate entries for each tribe. For further history see ISRAEL.)
TRINITY
God is one, but he exists as a Trinity. Any attempt to define the Trinity is difficult and dangerous, as it is an attempt to do what the Bible does not do. However, by a study of the biblical teaching about God, we understand that although God is one, the form in which his godhead exists is that of three persons – Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Each of the three persons is fully God, yet there is only one God, not three.
One God, three persons
The Old Testament gives little clear teaching about the Trinity, for the emphasis there is on the oneness of God. Israel lived among nations that had many gods. The important truth impressed upon Israel was that there is only one God, and he is a unity (Deut 6:4). Our understanding of the Trinity comes largely from the New Testament. This does not mean that the God of Old Testament times differed from the God of New Testament times, or that a God who was previously ‘one’ branched out into three. God has always existed in a Trinity. What is new in the New Testament is the revelation of the Trinity, not the Trinity itself. The reason why the revelation of the Trinity is new in the New Testament is that it was related to the great acts of God in bringing his plan of salvation to completion in Christ. God did not reveal his truth in the form of abstract truths unrelated to the situation in which the people of the time lived. Rather he revealed his truth step by step as he brought his people closer to the full salvation he had planned.
Nevertheless, with the fuller knowledge that Christians gain from the New Testament, they may see suggestions of the Trinity in the Old Testament. Such suggestions are there, even though believers of Old Testament times may not have seen them (cf. 1 Peter 1:10-12). For example, in the Old Testament references to the creation there was an inseparable connection between God, the creative power of God’s Word, and the life-giving power of God’s Spirit (Gen 1:1-3; Job 33:4; Ps 33:6). But with the coming of Jesus, people gained a clearer understanding of the work of the Trinity in all the activity of God, including the creation (John 1:1-4). This understanding increased further as Jesus taught his followers and left with them the gift of the Holy Spirit, who would interpret his teaching and continue to enlighten them (John 16:13-15).
The revelation through Jesus
Christ When God took human form in the person of Jesus Christ, much that was previously secret and hidden became open. Jesus revealed God to the world (John 1:1,14,18). Through Jesus Christ, God was now physically present in the world. But in another sense he was not physically present. Jesus made it plain that when people saw him they saw God (John 8:58-59), but he also made it plain that God existed elsewhere; for he himself came from God, and during his earthly life he spoke to God (John 6:38; 11:41-42). Jesus explained this apparent contradiction by pointing out that he was God the Son, and that the one from whom he came and to whom he spoke was God the Father. Although these two persons were distinct, they were uniquely united (John 5:18,37; 8:42; 10:30; 11:41; 14:9; 16:26-28; see FATHER; SON OF GOD). Having become a human being, God the Son now gave the additional revelation that there was a third person in the Godhead, the Holy Spirit.
All three persons were involved in the miraculous coming of the Son into the world (Luke 1:35), and the life and ministry of Jesus that followed should have shown people that God existed as a Trinity – Father, Son and Holy Spirit (Matt 3:16-17; 12:28; Luke 4:18; John 3:34-35). Just before he completed his ministry, Jesus explained about the Holy Spirit more fully. He promised that after he returned to his Father, he and the Father would send the Holy Spirit to be with his disciples, as he himself had been previously (John 14:16-17,26; 15:26). The Holy Spirit, though a separate person from the Father and the Son, is inseparably united with both (Acts 2:32-33). He comes from the Father as the bearer of the Father’s power and presence (John 15:26; 16:7-11), and he comes from the Son as the bearer of the Son’s power and presence (John 14:18; 16:7; Rom 8:9; see HOLY SPIRIT). Although there is a distinction between the three persons of the Godhead, there is no division. Each has his own personality and will, but he never acts independently of the others (John 14:26; Acts 16:6-7; Gal 4:6).
No change in God
This three-in-one and one-in-three unity of the Godhead is well illustrated in the command that Jesus gave to his disciples to baptize their converts ‘in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit’ (Matt 28:19). In Jewish thought the name represented the person (see NAME). Jesus here spoke of the name (singular), indicating one God, but at the same time he showed that this God existed in three persons. And these three persons were distinct from each other, yet uniquely and inseparably united. As a God-fearing Jew, Jesus gave his complete allegiance to the one and only true God, and he taught others to do likewise (Deut 6:4; Matt 22:37). Jesus’ statement therefore indicated that this God whom Israelites of former times worshipped under the name of Yahweh (Jehovah) was the same God as Christians worshipped under the name of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The God who is ‘one’ is at the same time a Trinity.
Faith of the New Testament
writers The early disciples reached a fuller understanding of the Trinity through the life, teaching, death and triumph of Jesus Christ. They then passed on their insights through the writings of the New Testament. They never tried to define the Trinity, nor did they try to ‘prove’ it in a theoretical sense. Since they knew God as the one who gave his Son to die for them and gave his Spirit to indwell them, they thought of God in no other way than as a Trinity. The New Testament writings therefore assume the fact of the Trinity at all times (Eph 4:4-6; 5:18-20; 1 Thess 1:3-5; 1 Peter 1:2). Yet they also assume the oneness of God (Rom 3:30; 1 Cor 8:4). In keeping with the teachings of Jesus, the teachings of the New Testament writers show that the three persons of the Trinity are fully and equally God. No one person is inferior to, or superior to, any other. Concerning their operations, however, there is a difference.
The Son is willingly subject to the Father (John 5:30; 7:16; 12:49; Phil 2:5-8; Heb 10:5-7), and the Spirit is willingly subject to both the Father and the Son (John 14:26; 15:26; 16:13-15; Rom 8:26-27; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19). Because of the unity between the persons of the Trinity, all three are active in all the work of God. This work is not, as it were, divided among three persons. In a sense, what one does they all do. But the Bible story shows that there is also a sense in which their activities differ. The name ‘Father’ speaks of one who has to do with the origin of things, and this is seen in the great works of creation, history and redemption (Mal 2:10; Eph 1:3-10; Heb 12:9; James 1:17). The Son is the one who reveals the Father, the one through whom the Father does these works (John 10:25,38; 14:10; 2 Cor 5:19; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-16). The Spirit is the one by whom God’s power operates in the world, the one who applies the truth of God’s works to people’s lives (John 14:17; 16:7-13; Acts 1:8; Rom 8:2-4; Gal 5:16-18; 1 Peter 1:2). God’s salvation comes from the Father, through the Son, by the Spirit (Titus 3:4-6), and people’s approach to God is by the Spirit, through the Son, to the Father (Eph 2:18).
Relationship with the triune
God In making statements about the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, the New Testament writers were not attempting a theoretical analysis of God. Their concern was not to set out in systematic form the character and activities of the persons of the Trinity, but to express the relationship that Christians have with God. Christians cannot fully understand the mysteries of the Godhead, but they should try to learn all they can about God; for the life they have in Christ depends on God being the sort of God he is – a Trinity. Jesus Christ, for example, could not be humankind’s Saviour if he were not the unique person that he is.
The fact of the Trinity was essential to his birth (Luke 1:35), his life (John 3:34; 5:36-37; Heb 2:3-4; 1 John 5:6-9), his death (Rom 8:32; Gal 2:20; Heb 9:14), his resurrection (Acts 2:42; John 10:18; Rom 8:11) and his exaltation (Acts 5:30-32). The fact of the Trinity is essential also for the life of believers: their indwelling by God (Eph 4:6; Col 1:27; 1 Cor 6:19); their sanctification (John 17:17; Heb 2:11; 1 Cor 6:11), their enjoyment of salvation (2 Cor 13:14), their exercise of prayer (Rom 8:26-27,34; Eph 2:18), their eternal security (John 10:28-29; Eph 4:30) and their ultimate victory over death (John 5:21; Rom 8:11). Likewise the Trinity is involved in the life of the church (1 Cor 12:4-6) and in Christian service (2 Cor 3:5-6; 1 Tim 1:12; Acts 20:28). The Scriptures that Christians possess are a provision from the triune God (2 Tim 3:16-17; 1 Peter 1:10-11; 2 Peter 1:21). They are one of the means by which the same God wants to work in and through his people, as they build themselves up in their faith and prepare themselves for fellowship with him in the age to come (Jude 20-21).
TROAS
The city of Troas was situated close by the site of ancient Troy in the region once known as Mysia. In New Testament times this region was part of the Roman province of Asia, and Troas was the main port in the province’s north-west. (For map see ASIA.) From Troas travellers sailed across the Aegean Sea to Macedonia, from where a major road led to Rome (Acts 16:8-11; 20:6-13). Troas therefore became an important town on the main route from Rome to Asia, and the Roman government gave it the status of a Roman colony. (Concerning Roman colonies see ROME, sub-heading ‘Provinces of the Empire’.) Paul visited Troas several times on his journeys to and from Rome (Acts 16:8-11; 20:6-13; 2 Cor 2:12-13; 2 Tim 4:13).
TRUTH
There are various meanings of the word ‘truth’ in the Bible, some of which are similar to those we use today. A person or thing may be true, meaning the opposite of false (Deut 13:14; Prov 12:19; Rom 9:1; see LIE) or the opposite of insincere (Gen 42:16; Phil 1:18; 1 John 3:18; see HYPOCRISY). A thing may be called true in contrast to that which is only a shadow or picture (John 1:9; 15:1; Heb 9:24; see TYPE). The Bible often uses ‘true’ with the meaning of reliable, faithful or trustworthy (Gen 24:49; 47:29; Ps 57:10; Rev 22:6).
God is truth
All these meanings are in some way applied to God (Ps 19:9; Jer 10:9-10; 42:5; Micah 6:20; Rom 3:4; 1 Thess 1:9; Rev 16:7). Truth is God’s very nature. He is the basic reality from which everything else springs (John 1:3-4,14; 8:26; Rom 1:25). God became human in Jesus, and therefore Jesus is truth in human form (John 14:6; Eph 4:21; Rev 3:7).
As the Old Testament spoke of the God of truth or, to use the related word, the God of the Amen (Isa 65:16), so the New Testament speaks of Jesus as the Amen. He is the one in whom God’s truth is perfectly expressed, and through whom God’s promises are perfectly fulfilled (John 1:17; 2 Cor 1:20; Rev 3:14; see AMEN). Jesus spoke repeatedly about the truth, and those who come to know him come to know the truth. Thereby they are freed from the bondage of sin, brought into a living relationship with the true God, and indwelt by him who is the Spirit of truth (John 8:32; 14:17; 16:13; 17:3; 2 John 1-2). Truth, in the sense spoken of by Jesus, saves people, for it represents the full saving activity of God through Jesus Christ. Jesus’ life and teaching were directed towards revealing and fulfilling God’s truth (John 1:17; 8:32,45-46; 17:17,19; 18:37). A natural development from this was to speak of ‘truth’ as referring to the whole body of Christian teaching (2 Cor 4:2; Gal 2:5; 5:7; Eph 1:13; 1 Tim 2:4; 2 Tim 2:15). This is in keeping with the Old Testament usage of ‘truth’ as applying to the revealed Word of God (Ps 25:5; 86:11; 119:142; see REVELATION).
Christian character
Truth in all its aspects should characterize the lives of those who have come under the rule of him who is the truth (Exod 18:21; Ps 26:3; John 3:21; 2 Cor 13:8; Eph 4:15,25; 6:14; Titus 1:2; Heb 6:18; 3 John 4). Having become obedient to the truth, they must be loyal to the truth, without any trace of falsehood, insincerity or unfaithfulness (1 Cor 5:8; 2 Cor 4:2; Gal 4:16; 1 Peter 1:22). Their possession of God’s truth, however, is no reason for Christians to claim absolute authority for their own theories or opinions. The human mind is limited and, like all human capacities and abilities, is affected by sin (1 Cor 8:2). God alone is the possessor of absolute truth (Isa 55:8-9; Rom 11:33-34; see KNOWLEDGE).
TYCHICUS
Among the church representatives who went with Paul to present a gift to the Jerusalem church were two men from the province of Asia, Tychicus and Trophimus (Acts 20:4; 21:29). When Paul was later imprisoned for two years in Rome, Tychicus spent some time with him. Paul then sent him as his special representative to the churches of Ephesus and Colossae, to tell the Christians how he was faring in Rome. Tychicus probably also carried Paul’s letters to the Ephesians and the Colossians (Eph 6:21-22; Col 4:7- 8). Tychicus continued to work with Paul after Paul’s release from imprisonment. Paul considered sending him to relieve Titus in Crete (Titus 3:12), and later he sent him to relieve Timothy in Ephesus (2 Tim 4:12).
TYPE, TYPOLOGY
The New Testament teaches that certain things in the religious system of Israel were ‘shadows’, ‘copies’ or ‘models’ of the ‘real’ things that came through Jesus Christ (Col 2:17; Heb 8:5; 9:23-24; 10:1). The Old Testament provides examples, foreshadowings, illustrations and symbols of realities that we meet later in the New (Heb 9:8-9). All these examples, shadows, copies and symbols are commonly called ‘types’. The particular kind of biblical interpretation that sees these ‘types’ fulfilled in the New Testament is called ‘typology’.
Patterns in the Scriptures
New Testament writers point out repeatedly that the New Testament fulfils the Old. By this they mean that God brings to completion the plan he had been working out for humankind through the history of Israel. There is a pattern in God’s activity, a repetition of his acts of judgment and salvation. This pattern reaches its completion and fulfilment in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus (Deut 4:25-31; Judg 2:13-16; 1 Kings 8:33-34; Ps 81:7-10; 89:29-37; Isa 1:16-20; Acts 2:36-39; Rom 3:21-26). In reading the Old Testament we therefore see illustrations of human failure and divine redemption. Judgment and salvation through the flood of Noah’s day can picture the greater judgment and salvation through Christ’s death. These truths are pictured also in Christian baptism (1 Peter 3:20-21). Further examples are found in the Passover salvation and the events that followed. The Passover redemption foreshadows the greater redemption through Christ (1 Cor 5:7; see PASSOVER). The song sung by the Israelites who triumphed over the Egyptians becomes more meaningful when sung by Christians who triumph over their oppressors (Rev 15:3-4). Israel’s experiences in the wilderness show what happens to unbelieving and rebellious people (1 Cor 10:1-11; Heb 3:7-4:10).
Lessons for a preparatory age
The Old Testament era was one of preparation. God was instructing his people by showing them their sin, his righteousness, and the outworking of his mercy in saving repentant sinners. This preparation was in expectation of the coming of Christ. God is consistent in his character and in his dealings. The same great truths were present in Old and New Testament times, for the principles of God’s salvation are unchanging. But until Christ came and revealed the means of that salvation, God taught the less enlightened Old Testament people in a form they could understand more easily. God intended the Old Testament ‘types’ (the illustrations, pictures and examples) to be simple, not complicated. An example of this is the sacrifice offered for sin (Lev 4:1-12; 16:1-28). This was symbolic of the death of Christ (Heb 9:11-14), but apart from any connection with Christ’s death it had a meaning of its own. An Israelite believer sacrificed an animal on the altar as a personal substitute, in confession that the animal suffered the penalty of sin (death) that the offerer deserved. This was a very poor substitute for the complete forgiveness that comes only through the death of Christ (Heb 10:1-4,11-12), but as a simple God-given picture it had a purpose in its day (see SACRIFICE).
Fuller understanding through
Christ In general the New Testament writers emphasize the differences, rather than the similarities, between the Old Testament ‘shadows’ and the New Testament ‘realities’ (Heb 3:1-6; 7:11-12,23-28; 9:8-14,24-26; 10:11-14). Israel’s rites and ceremonies illustrated God’s truth to people who lived in an era before the coming of Jesus Christ, but they were imperfect representations of the reality, which is Christ. If Christians want to learn more of the excellencies of Christ, they will find them in the New Testament realities rather than in the Old Testament shadows (Col 2:17; Heb 7:19; 8:6-7). The entire Old Testament revelation was a preparation for Christ, and this is the way the New Testament writers interpret it. For them typology was a Christian interpretation of history. (For the relevance of this to the New Testament writers’ use of the Old Testament, see QUOTATIONS.) This Christian view of the Bible does not give present-day readers the liberty to choose any Old Testament character or event and make it a ‘type’ of Christ and his work. They must not treat Old Testament passages as allegories; that is, they must not give words or things symbolic meanings that have no connection with the context. The first responsibility that readers have is to understand the straightforward meaning of each passage. As they understand its significance in God’s progressive revelation, they will readily see its relevance for people today (Rom 15:4; 1 Cor 10:11; Heb 4:1-2; see INTERPRETATION).
TYRE
Along the Mediterranean coast north of Palestine lay the ancient land of Phoenicia, whose chief cities were the ports of Tyre and Sidon. The Bible rarely uses the name Phoenicia, preferring to refer to the country by the names of its chief cities, either separately or together (1 Kings 5:1; Ezra 3:7; Jer 47:4; Ezek 28:2,21; Zech 9:2; Mark 7:24; Luke 6:17; Acts 12:20). Other Phoenician towns along the Mediterranean coast were Zarephath and Byblos (1 Kings 17:9). The Phoenicians were among the great sailors of the ancient world and had large shipping fleets working the trade routes of the Mediterranean Sea (Isa 23:5,7). This brought much wealth to Phoenicia, particularly to Tyre, since it was the chief port (Ezek 27:3,25). But with wealth came arrogance, and this brought judgment from God (Ezek 28:5,9,16). The judgment on Phoenicia was usually pictured in the overthrow of Tyre or the downfall of its king (Ezek 27:2; 28:2,12). (For map and other details of Tyre, including its important rulers, commercial power and colourful history, see PHOENICIA.)