CAESAR
The name ‘Caesar’ was a Roman family name that became famous through Caesar Augustus, the man who in 27 BC introduced a new era in Roman affairs. Out of the disorder that characterized Rome and its colonies, Caesar Augustus founded what became known as the Roman Empire (Luke 2:1). People held him in such honour that later rulers took his name Caesar as their title (Luke 3:1). By New Testament times the common practice was to refer to the Emperor simply as Caesar (Mark 12:14; Luke 20:22; John 19:15; Acts 17:7; 25:11,25). For further details see ROME.
CAESAREA
A few years before the time of Christ, Herod the Great built a new city on the Mediterranean coast and named it Caesarea, in honour of the Roman Emperor. It was a magnificent city, but today only a few of its ruins remain. The Palestine coast south of Mt Carmel had no good sites for harbours, because of the shallow waters and sandy shores. Herod therefore built an expensive artificial harbour for Caesarea, and the city soon became an important port. Being situated on the main north-south coastal road that linked Phoenicia and Egypt, the city developed into a prosperous centre for inland and overseas trade. It was also an important centre of administration from which the Herods, and later the Romans, governed the region (Acts 12:19; 23:33; 25:1-6). When the Jews persecuted the early Christians and forced them to leave Jerusalem (Acts 8:1,4), Philip the evangelist went to live in Caesarea (Acts 8:40; 21:8). The apostle Peter helped the work, and soon a church was established there. An early convert was a Roman centurion, Cornelius (Acts 10:1,24,44-48). Later the apostle Paul also helped the church. He passed through Caesarea on a number of occasions and was for a time imprisoned there (Acts 9:30; 18:22; 21:8,16; 23:23-35; 24:24-27; 25:1-13). This coastal city of Caesarea is not to be confused with the inland town of Caesarea Philippi. The latter was in the hill country of northern Galilee (Matt 16:13; see CAESAREA PHILIPPI).
CAESAREA
PHILIPPI According to the biblical record, Caesarea Philippi was the most northerly town of Palestine that Jesus visited. It was located in northern Galilee, near the source of the Jordan River (Matt 16:13; Mark 8:27). Like the much larger town of Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast, it was named in honour of the Roman Emperor. It was given the additional name Philippi in honour of Herod Philip, the provincial governor in whose territory it was located (cf. Luke 3:1).
CAIAPHAS
As Jewish high priest in Jerusalem during the time of Jesus, Caiaphas is chiefly remembered for his part in the crucifixion of Jesus. He was son-in-law of the former high priest Annas (John 18:13), he became high priest before Jesus began his ministry (Luke 3:2), and he was still high priest in the days of the early church (Acts 4:6). During the time of Jesus, the members of the Sanhedrin (the Jewish Council) became increasingly hostile to him as they saw his fame growing. They feared that, if the Jews accepted Jesus as their Messiah and rebelled against Rome, the Romans would respond by crushing the Jews (John 11:47-48). Caiaphas, as leader of the Sanhedrin, suggested they get rid of Jesus. In his view, one man’s death would save the nation.
The words of Caiaphas had a prophetic meaning that he did not realize; for Jesus’ death would indeed be a means of salvation, not just for Jewish people, but for people of all nations (John 11:49-52). Acting upon the advice of Caiaphas, the Jews plotted to arrest Jesus (John 11:53; Matt 26:3-5). In the middle of the night, only a few hours before the dawn of Passover day, they captured him and took him to the house where Annas and Caiaphas lived. He was questioned first by Annas (John 18:12-14) and then by the Sanhedrin, whom Caiaphas had assembled in his house (Matt 26:57-58). In reply to a question from Caiaphas, Jesus said that he truly was the Messiah from heaven and he was about to receive his eternal kingdom. Caiaphas promptly accused him of blasphemy. Although the meeting’s conduct and verdict were illegal according to Jewish law, the Sanhedrin had no hesitation in condemning Jesus to death (Matt 26:59-66; Mark 14:61-64; see SANHEDRIN).
CAIN
Eldest of Adam and Eve’s family, Cain was a crop farmer. Since people were to acknowledge God as the giver of all things, Cain brought some of his farm produce and presented it as an offering to God. Cain’s brother Abel, being a shepherd, offered sheep. But whereas Abel presented his offering in sincerity and faith, Cain did not, with the result that God accepted Abel’s offering but rejected Cain’s (Gen 4:1-5; Heb 11:4). Cain was envious and angry. He was told that if he wanted God to accept his sacrifice, he had to change his ways and overcome the sinful attitudes that were threatening to destroy him (Gen 4:5-7).
Cain, however, refused to humble himself, and gave clear evidence of the evil within his heart by murdering his brother (Gen 4:8; 1 John 3:12). In punishment God drove him into a barren region. Cain still showed no sign of repentance, only fear of punishment. Yet God in his mercy promised to protect Cain from any possible revenge killing (Gen 4:8-16). Free from the influence of those who still worshipped God, Cain set about establishing his own independent settlement. His descendants raised cattle and developed skills in arts and crafts, but morally they drifted further from God (Gen 4:17-24; cf. Rom 1:20-28).
CALEB
Although brought up a slave in Egypt, Caleb proved himself a responsible leader once the people of Israel began to organize themselves on the journey to Canaan. Within a short time he became one of the leaders of his tribe, Judah.
On the journey to Canaan
When Moses chose twelve representatives (one from each tribe) to go to Canaan and spy out the land, Caleb was the person chosen from the tribe of Judah (Num 13:2,6,17-20). At that time he was forty years of age (Josh 14:7). The spies returned with a report that although Canaan was a fertile land, its inhabitants were fearsome, particularly the giant people of Anak who lived in the region of Hebron (Num 13:21-29; see ANAK). This report immediately discouraged the people from going ahead with the attack, but Caleb spoke up boldly, believing that in God’s strength they could overcome the enemy (Num 13:30). The people, however, chose to accept the opinion of the unbelieving spies. They refused to trust God, and rebelled against the leadership of Moses (Num 13:31-14:4). Only Joshua, the spy who went as the representative of the tribe of Ephraim, supported Caleb (Num 14:6-9). God responded to the people’s rebellion by announcing that, since they did not want to enter Canaan, they would have their wish. During the next forty years all who were at that time twenty years of age or over (except Caleb and Joshua) would die in the wilderness (Num 14:28-35). When, forty years later, a new generation had grown up and the people were about to enter Canaan, Moses appointed one leader from each of the twelve tribes to assist the new leader Joshua and the high priest Eleazar in the division of the land. Caleb was again chosen to represent Judah (Num 34:16-19).
Life in Canaan
After several years of battle, Canaan belonged to Israel and was divided between the twelve tribes. Groups of unconquered Canaanites were still scattered throughout the country, but each Israelite tribe was responsible for overcoming the enemies within its territory (Josh 13:1-7; cf. 15:63; 16:10; 17:12,18). Caleb was now eighty-five years of age, but he was ready to show that his faith and courage were as strong as they had been forty-five years earlier. The people of Anak, whom the Israelites had once been afraid to fight, still occupied Hebron, the region that had been allotted to Caleb within the tribal territory of Judah. Caleb conquered them and took possession of their towns (Josh 14:6-15; 15:13-14). The boldness of Caleb helped to develop the faith and courage of others. Having set an example by his conquest of Hebron, he offered his daughter as a wife to any man who could conquer the neighbouring town of Debir. The conqueror was Othniel, who later became a great leader in Israel (Josh 15:15-19; Judg 3:9-11).
CALENDAR
See MONTH.
CALL
In biblical usage, the word ‘call’ has a similarly wide range of meanings as it has in everyday usage. This wide range of meanings applies even when the Bible speaks of God’s call to individual people, though certain usages stand out as being of greater theological significance.
God may call people in the sense simply of commanding them or inviting them; yet rebellious people often ignore his call (Isa 65:12; Jer 7:13; Matt 9:13; 22:3-6,14). More specifically, he may call people in the sense of choosing them or directing them according to specific purposes he has for them (Isa 43:1; 46:11; Hosea 11:1; Matt 4:21; Acts 16:10; Heb 11:8). In an even higher sense, he calls people by giving them his salvation and making them his own (Rom 1:6; 8:30; 1 Cor 1:24). Christians are those who have responded to the call of God that they heard through the gospel. Their existence as God’s people is the work of the sovereign God who, in his grace and mercy, has called them and saved them (1 Cor 1:2,26; Col 3:15; 2 Thess 2:14; 2 Tim 1:9). This aspect of the call of God is sometimes referred to as election (Rom 9:11; see ELECTION). God’s calling involves more than merely saving his people from the penalty of sin. He has called them to enjoy freedom (Gal 5:1,13), to practise holiness (1 Thess 4:7; 1 Peter 1:15), to be changed into Christ’s likeness (Rom 8:29-30), to share in Christ’s kingdom (1 Thess 2:12) and to proclaim Christ’s message (1 Peter 2:9). He has also called them to share Christ’s glory; though if they are to experience this fully, they must also share Christ’s suffering (1 Peter 2:21; 5:10).
CALVARY
See GOLGOTHA.
CANAAN
The land of Canaan took its name from Canaan the son of Ham, who in turn was a son of Noah (Gen 10:1,6). The territory stretched along the Mediterranean coast from Phoenicia (Sidon) in the north to Philistia (Gaza) in the south, and extended inland to the hills of Syria and the valley of the Jordan River (Gen 10:15-19). This was the land that God promised to give to Abraham and his descendants (Israel) as a national homeland (Gen 12:5-7; 13:12-17; cf. Exod 3:7-8; 6:1-4; Num 13:2,17). The land’s boundaries were more clearly defined some centuries later when the Israelites were about to take possession of it. The northern boundary went from the region of the Jordan’s headwaters to the coast. The southern boundary went from the Dead Sea through Kadesh-barnea to the Brook of Egypt, which it then followed to the coast. The eastern boundary was the Jordan River and the western boundary the Mediterranean Sea (Num 34:1-12). (For details of the physical features of the land see PALESTINE.)
The Canaanite people
In the time of Abraham many tribal groups lived in Canaan along with the original Canaanites. Many of these tribal peoples feature in the history of Israel’s origins and early development, but all were destined to lose their land to the Israelites (Gen 15:18-21; Exod 3:8; Num 23:29; see AMALEKITES; HITTITES; HIVITES; JEBUSITES; PERIZZITES; REPHAIM). The most dominant of the peoples of Canaan were the Amorites. They had settled widely and intermarried extensively with the Canaanites, till the names ‘Canaanite’ and ‘Amorite’ became general terms that people used interchangeably to refer to the entire population of Canaan (Gen 12:5-7; 15:16; Josh 24:3,18; see AMORITES).
Conquest of Canaan
Though all the Canaanite peoples were religiously and morally corrupt, God gave them ample time to repent before he finally executed his judgment upon them. It was several hundred years from the time God warned of judgment to the time the judgment actually fell. Only when the Canaanites’ wickedness had gone beyond the limits that God’s tolerance allowed did God command the Israelites to destroy them and possess their land (Gen 15:16; Deut 7:1-5; 20:17-18). When the Israelites conquered Canaan, they also conquered territory that bordered the Jordan River on the east and was occupied by the Amorites (Num 21:21-35). Two and a half of Israel’s twelve tribes settled in this trans-Jordan territory. This means that Canaan itself (i.e. the area west of Jordan extending to the Mediterranean Sea) was occupied by only nine and a half tribes (Num 32:29-33; 34:13-15). (Concerning Israel’s conquest of Canaan and subsequent history in the land see ISRAEL.)
CANDLESTICK
See LAMP.
CANON
According to the word’s early usages, a canon was a rule, standard, measure or list. According to popular Christian usage, the ‘canon’ of Scripture is that collection of writings that the church acknowledges as the authoritative Word of God. In other words, it is the list of books that make up the Bible. It consists of the Old Testament canon, which had become established during the centuries before the time of Christ, and the New Testament canon, which became established during the early centuries of the Christian era. Canonical books are those acknowledged as being written through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit (see INSPIRATION). Non-canonical books are religious books of the biblical era that are not acknowledged as being the inspired Word of God and have therefore not been collected in the Bible. They may be useful, and may even be referred to by the writers of the Bible (e.g. Num 21:14; Josh 10:13; 1 Chron 29:29; Jude 9,14), but they have no divine authority.
Israelite writers
From the beginning of their history as a nation, Israelites kept written accounts of their law and significant events in their history (Exod 24:4; Num 33:2; Josh 24:26; 1 Kings 11:41). Some of these writings were regarded as sacred and were kept at Israel’s sanctuary (Deut 31:24-26; 2 Kings 22:8). Others were used as sources of information for the writing of books that later became part of the Bible (1 Kings 14:19; 15:7; 2 Chron 9:29; 12:15; 20:34). While some people made written records of laws and events, others made collections of proverbs and psalms (1 Kings 4:32; Ps 72:20; Prov 25:1). In addition prophets often wrote down their messages (Isa 30:8; 34:16; Jer 36:2; 51:60) and people who recognized these messages as God’s Word quoted them as authoritative (Jer 26:17-18; Dan 9:2).
The Old Testament collection
Under the guiding control of God, a recognized body of sacred writings was growing up in Israel. However, the formation of an official canon was not something that people planned. No person or group of persons decided to make an Old Testament canon. From the time of Moses people had clearly recognized certain writings as being the voice of God speaking to them, and as the years passed the collection of authoritative books grew. No one gave the books their authority. The books had authority within themselves, and people could do no more than acknowledge this. No one knows for certain when the collection of sacred writings that we call the Old Testament was completed, but there are good reasons for thinking that Ezra and Nehemiah helped shape it towards its final form. They had come to Jerusalem in 458 and 445 BC respectively (Ezra 7:1-10; Neh 2:1-8), and played an important part in establishing the sacred writings as the basis of Israel’s religious life in the post-captivity period (Neh 8:1-3,8; 9:1-3). Leaders of following generations probably completed the work that Ezra and Nehemiah had begun. It seems clear that the Jewish canon (i.e. our Old Testament) was firmly established by the time of Christ (Matt 21:42; Luke 24:27; John 5:39). Towards the end of the first century AD a council of Jewish leaders confirmed that Jews recognized these books, and no others, as canonical. (For the composition of the Old Testament see SCRIPTURES. For the authority of the Old Testament canon that Jesus and New Testament writers acknowledged see INSPIRATION.)
Apocryphal writings
The third and second centuries BC produced many new Jewish writings. Some of these were vividly written and therefore were very popular, particularly in an age when great changes were occurring in the Jewish world. But their popularity did not give them authority, and they were never accepted into the Jewish canon. These non-canonical books are in two groups. One group is known as the Apocrypha (literally, ‘hidden’, but meaning ‘disapproved’ or ‘outside’; i.e. outside the canon). The other group is known as the Pseudepigrapha (meaning ‘written under a false name’). In popular usage, ‘Apocrypha’ often refers to the two groups together. Early Christians may have read the books (e.g. Jude 9,14), but they did not regard them as Scripture.
Early Christian writings
In the early days of the church, the ‘Bible’ that the Christians used was what we call the Old Testament (Luke 24:27,44; Acts 8:32; 17:2,11; Rom 1:2; 4:3; 9:17; 2 Tim 3:15-16). But with the coming of Jesus, Christians saw that God’s revelation did not end with the Old Testament. Jesus had promised the apostles that after he returned to his Father, the Holy Spirit would come to indwell them, enabling them to recall, interpret and apply his teachings (John 14:25-26; 16:13-15). The writings of the New Testament are part of the fulfilment of that promise. Apostles had God-given authority, and Christians recognized their teachings and writings as having the same authority as the Old Testament Scriptures (1 Cor 14:37; 1 Thess 5:27; 2 Thess 2:15; 3:14; 2 Peter 3:2; Rev 1:1-3).
A growing collection
As the writings of the apostles circulated, they gradually grew into a new collection in addition to, yet equal to, the Old Testament collection (2 Peter 3:15-16). It seems that when the early Christians evaluated the worth of the writings available to them, an important consideration was whether those writings came from the apostles or those who had the apostles’ approval. The Gospels, the letters of Paul, the book of Acts, and the letters 1 Peter and 1 John were accepted everywhere as authoritative from the time they began to circulate. During the latter part of the first century and the early part of the second, a number of other Christian writings were circulating widely. Some of these were useful, but they were not accepted by the churches as authoritative. In time Christians in general acknowledged that these writings were not inspired Scripture, with the result that they were excluded from the developing New Testament canon. On the other hand people in some regions took longer to accept all the writings that are now part of the New Testament. Although a particular church or group of churches may have accepted an apostolic letter as having authority for them, churches elsewhere may not have immediately seen the relevance of the letter for all churches. No doubt there were many letters which, though having apostolic authority, were not preserved (1 Cor 5:9; cf. 1 Thess 3:17). Also, letters that were very short or of uncertain authorship usually took longer to become widely known.
Completion of the canon
By the middle of the second century, churches in some places had a collection of books approximately equal to the present New Testament. But in other places people still had doubts about a small minority of books. The damaging activity of false teachers was one factor that prompted church leaders to consider more closely which books were to be regarded as canonical and which were not. Church Councils met to discuss the matter at length, and by the end of the fourth century there was general agreement that the New Testament canon consists of the twenty-seven books that we recognize today. Church Councils may have performed a useful service, but they could give no authority to the biblical books. The authority lay within the books themselves. They were the living Word of God (John 7:17; 1 Thess 2:13), and the Councils could do no more than acknowledge that authority. They did not create the canon, but merely acknowledged that Christians and churches everywhere recognized the books as being God’s inspired and authoritative Word.
CAPERNAUM
The important town of Capernaum was on the north-west shore of the Sea of Galilee. Jesus seems to have made it the base for his ministry in Galilee, and it became known as his home town (Matt 4:13; 9:1; Mark 2:1; 9:33; John 6:24). Another lakeside town, Bethsaida, was close by (Mark 6:43-45; John 6:13,17; for map see BETHSAIDA). Capernaum was large enough to have its own tax collectors. One of these was Matthew, who later became a disciple of Jesus (Mark 2:1,13-15; cf. Matt 17:24). Among the town’s more important citizens were government officials and at least one Roman centurion (Matt 8:5; 17:24; John 4:46). There was a large Jewish population in Capernaum and the town had several synagogues. Jesus often taught in these synagogues, but the people’s stubborn refusal to believe in him as the Messiah would one day bring God’s judgment upon them (Matt 11:23; Luke 4:31; John 6:59).
CAPTIVITY
See EXILE; SLAVE.
CARMEL
Mount Carmel was the only major headland on the Palestine coast (Jer 46:18). It rose steeply from the sea, then extended inland in a mountain range about twenty kilometres long that divided between the Plain of Esdraelon to the north and the Plain of Sharon to the south. The mountains had good forests and pasture lands (Isa 33:9; 35:2; Jer 50:19; Amos 1:2; 9:3; Nahum 1:4). (For maps and other details of the region see PALESTINE.) According to the beliefs of Baalism that Jezebel introduced into Israel from Phoenicia, Mt Carmel was a sacred Baal site. This gives added significance to the contest on Mt Carmel where Elijah defeated the prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18:17-46; see ELIJAH). (Mt Carmel had no connection with a town in Judah named Carmel; 1 Sam 15:12; 25:2-42.)
CENTURION
A centurion was an officer in the Roman army. The name came from the Latin centurio, indicating that originally it was the title for an officer in charge of a hundred soldiers. The favourable references to centurions in the New Testament suggest that they may have been carefully chosen because of their quality of character. Some even became believers in Jesus Christ (Matt 8:5-13; 27:54; Acts 10:1-2; 23:17- 18; 27:43).
CHALDEA
Ancient Babylonia was occupied largely by people belonging to two racial groups, the Sumerians and the Amorites. In addition smaller tribal groups were scattered throughout the region. The most important of the smaller groups were the Chaldeans, who lived in the south of Babylon around the lower reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the time before Abraham, the Babylonian rulers were mainly of Sumerian descent and their capital was the Chaldean city of Ur, from which Abraham originally came (Gen 11:28; Acts 7:4). About 2000 BC Babylonians of Amorite descent overthrew the dynasty in Ur and established a new capital at the city of Babylon. (For a map of the region and further details of Babylon’s history see BABYLON.)
Many centuries later, during the period covered by the biblical books of Kings, a Babylonian of Chaldean descent seized the throne in Babylon (about 720 BC). Chaldeans continued to rule till Babylon was overthrown by Persia in 539 BC. As a result of this Chaldean domination, the practice arose of using ‘Chaldea’ as a name for the land of Babylon as a whole, and ‘Chaldeans’ as a name for Babylonians in general (Isa 13:19; 47:1; 48:14,20; Jer 25:12; Dan 5:30; 9:1). The word ‘Chaldeans’ had also a more technical meaning, which had passed down from ancient times when certain Chaldeans became famous as astrologers, priests and wise men. This is the sense in which the Bible uses the name in the expression ‘magicians, enchanters, Chaldeans and astrologers’ (Dan 4:7; 5:7,11).
CHARIOT
When the Israelites entered Canaan under Joshua, they were successful in conquering the hill country, but had difficulty in conquering the plains. The reason for this was that the local Canaanites were well equipped with chariots (Josh 11:4; 17:16; Judg 1:19; 4:13; 1 Sam 13:5). The use of chariots did not become common in Israel till the time of David, when Israel conquered many of the peoples of the plains and seized their chariots (2 Sam 8:3-4; 15:1). During the reign of Solomon, Israel’s chariot forces were expanded considerably, and from his time on they were an important part of Israel’s army (1 Kings 4:26; 9:22; 10:26; 20:21; 22:35; 2 Kings 8:21; 9:21; 10:2; 13:7). The armies of other nations likewise relied heavily on chariots (1 Kings 22:31; 2 Kings 6:11-14; 18:24; 19:23; see also WAR).
CHASTISEMENT
Parents have a responsibility to discipline their children when they do wrong, but any punishment involved must arise out of love. The punishment is therefore better called chastisement. Parents who love their children will not ignore their children’s wrongdoing, but will deal with it (Heb 12:6-9; cf. 2 Sam 7:14-15; Ps 89:26-33).
Chastisement should be both a penalty for wrongdoing and a form of training. It should teach children to avoid what is wrong and do what is right, and so develop lives that are useful to themselves and to others (Prov 13:24; 22:15; 23:14; 29:15). Parents, when chastising their children, therefore should act with proper understanding and without bad temper (Eph 6:4). As parents correct and train their children, so God disciplines his children. Such discipline is proof to believers that they are God’s children and that he loves them (Deut 8:5; Prov 3:11; Heb 12:5-11; Rev 3:19). God’s purpose in disciplining his children is to correct their faults, teach them obedience, and make them more into the sorts of people that he, in his superior wisdom, wants them to be (Ps 94:12; 1 Cor 11:32).
In carrying out this purpose, God may send his people various trials, such as suffering, defeat and loss. Sometimes these trials may be punishments for specific sins, but at other times they may not have any direct relation to wrongdoing (Ps 38:1-4; 118:18; John 9:1-3; 2 Cor 1:3-7; 12:7-10). They are simply the means God uses to remove imperfections from his people and bring them closer to the fulness of growth he desires for them. Because he loves them, he will be satisfied with nothing less than their perfection (Eph 5:25-27; cf. Heb 5:8-9; see also SUFFERING; TESTING).
CHEMOSH
Bordering Israel in the region east of the Dead Sea was the nation Moab, whose national god was Chemosh. In times of religious corruption, Israel copied Moabite religious practices (Judg 10:6; 1 Kings 11:7,33), and in times of reformation got rid of them (2 Kings 23:13). The Moabites looked for help from Chemosh through offering child sacrifices (2 Kings 3:26-27; cf. Judg 10:6; 11:30-31,39), but Chemosh was powerless to save them from the judgment of God (Jer 48:7,13,46; see MOAB).
CHERETHITES
The Cherethites and Pelethites were people who lived among the Philistines and who, like the Philistines, probably came originally from Crete (1 Sam 30:14; Ezek 25:16; Zeph 2:5; see PHILISTIA). They were such good soldiers that David, upon conquering the Philistines, used them to form his personal bodyguard, under the command of the tough Benaiah (2 Sam 8:18; 20:23). They were fiercely loyal to David through the rebellions of Absalom and Sheba, and they supported David’s chosen successor, Solomon, when there was an attempted coup against him (2 Sam 15:18; 20:7; 1 Kings 1:38). There is no mention of them after the death of David.
CHERUBIM
From the images that were made for the tabernacle and the temple, it seems that cherubim (plural of cherub) were winged creatures of some heavenly angelic order. They usually acted as guardians for the Almighty and his interests. After the rebellion against God in the garden of Eden, God sent cherubim to guard the tree of life (Gen 3:24). In Israel’s tabernacle, two cherubim images were attached to the lid of the ark of the covenant in the Most Holy Place. The lid of the ark, known as the mercy seat, was the symbolic throne of God, and the cherubim were symbolic guardians of that throne (Exod 25:18-22; 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Sam 6:2; 2 Kings 19:15; Ps 80:1; Heb 9:5).
In Solomon’s temple also, the Most Holy Place had images of guardian cherubim. They were so huge that side by side they stretched across the room from wall to wall (1 Kings 6:23-28). In Ezekiel’s visions, cherubim supported the chariot-throne of God (Ezek 1:4-28; 10:1-22; cf. Ps 18:10). Craftsmen who worked on the ornamentation of the tabernacle and the temple included cherubim in many of their designs. Cherubim were pictured on the coverings and curtains of the tabernacle (Exod 26:1,31), the walls of the temple (1 Kings 6:29; cf. Ezek 41:17-20,25), and the mobile lavers that belonged to the temple (1 Kings 7:29,36).
CHILD
One of God’s purposes for human marriage is that a husband and wife produce children and build a secure and contented family. Godly people regard their children as a gift from God, and aim at bringing them up to know him and walk in his ways (Deut 6:6-9; Ps 127:3; Eph 6:4; 2 Tim 3:15). (Concerning the privileges and responsibilities of children in relation to their families and parents see FAMILY.) However, in a world spoiled by sin, not all children grow up in a secure family environment. As a result they may be greatly disadvantaged and even exploited (Exod 22:22-24; Deut 26:12; 27:19; James 1:27; see ORPHAN).
Examples and illustrations
Jesus had a special concern for children and warned against ignoring or despising them. He pointed to their simple dependency on others as an illustration of the attitude that people must have if they are to enter the kingdom of God. People must realize that before God they are as helpless as children. They enter the kingdom of God not by their wisdom or achievements but solely by accepting God’s grace (Matt 18:1-4; Mark 10:13-16). When Christians realize that in God’s eyes they have no more power or status than a child, they will be specially considerate of all other children, making sure they do nothing to cause them harm (Matt 18:5-10). The ‘children’ referred to here are both those who are children literally and those who are children in the sense of being new believers with childlike faith (cf. 1 John 2:12-13). Sometimes the young see truths that those of traditional views fail to see (Matt 21:14-16). Another way in which the Bible speaks of believers as children is as children of God. In one picture they are born into God’s family through the life-giving work of God himself (John 1:12-13; see REGENERATION); in another they are adopted into God’s family and given the status of mature adult sons (Rom 8:15-17; Gal 4:5-7; see ADOPTION). As children of God, they are to develop the character of their Father (Matt 5:9,48; 1 Peter 1:14-16; 1 John 2:29; 3:10). In biblical language, ‘to be a child of’ sometimes means ‘to have the character of’ (1 Kings 21:13; Luke 7:35; Eph 2:2; 5:8; 1 Thess 5:5) or ‘to be the subject of’ (Eph 2:3; 2 Peter 2:14). The Bible uses the picture of children in yet another way when it likens immature Christians to children who have not grown up. Like babies they still need the ‘milk’ of introductory teaching, when they should be feeding on the ‘meat’ of more advanced teaching (1 Cor 3:1-2; Heb 5:12-14). Love for the spectacular is another sign of immaturity. Christians should have the innocence of children in relation to evil, but in their minds they should be mature adults (1 Cor 13:8-11; 14:18-20).
CHINNERETH
Chinnereth was another name for Gennesaret. It applied both to the Lake of Gennesaret (the Sea of Galilee) and to the small Plain of Gennesaret on the lake’s western shore (Num 34:11; Josh 19:35; Luke 5:1). For fuller details see PALESTINE, sub-heading ‘Upper Jordan and Sea of Galilee’.
CHRISTIAN
The citizens of Antioch in Syria were the first people to give the name ‘Christian’ to believers in Jesus Christ (Acts 11:26). The language spoken in Antioch was Greek, and therefore the believers in that town spoke of Jesus not by the Hebrew word ‘Messiah’, but by the equivalent Greek word ‘Christ’. (Both words meant ‘the anointed one’; see MESSIAH.) To people who were neither Jews nor believers, ‘the anointed one’ (‘Christ’) had no significance. To them the word seemed to be merely the name of a person, and the followers of that person they called ‘Christ’s people’, or ‘Christians’. Originally non-believers used the name ‘Christian’ as a nickname, possibly in mockery (Acts 26:28). But it proved to be a suitable name, for it showed that the Christian religion was centred on Christ. Under some of the later Roman Emperors, believers in Jesus were persecuted merely for being Christians (1 Peter 4:16).
CHRONICLES
CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF In the Hebrew Bible the two books of Chronicles form one volume. The writer has not recorded his name, though he has mentioned books and documents from which he gathered his information (1 Chron 9:1; 27:24; 29:29; 2 Chron 9:29; 16:11; 24:27; 33:19; 35:25). His account in some ways parallels the record found in the books of Samuel and Kings, but it is by no means a repetition. The Chronicler wrote for a particular group of people and with a particular purpose in mind.
Purpose of Chronicles
During the period covered by 1 and 2 Kings, the Israelite kingdom divided into two, the northern kingdom being known as Israel, the southern as Judah. When the people of the northern kingdom were taken into captivity by Assyria (732-722 BC), many became so widely scattered in the Assyrian Empire that they largely lost their national identity. When the people of the southern kingdom were taken into captivity by Babylon (605-582 BC), they remained together in Babylon and retained their national identity. It was people of this latter group who began returning to Palestine after Persia’s conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. Most of those who returned had never lived in Palestine and knew little of the operations of the Jerusalem temple in the days before its destruction. These were the people for whom the Chronicler wrote. He wanted to give them some background concerning their nation’s history, and especially concerning its religion. He wanted them to realize that they were more than just a lot of migrants returning to the land of their forefathers. They were a continuation of that pre-captivity nation whose political life was based on the Davidic dynasty, and whose religious life was based on the Levitical priesthood.
Features of Chronicles
By carefully choosing and arranging his material, the Chronicler impressed upon the released captives the importance of rebuilding their nation according to God’s design. They were not to be led astray by former bad examples. Though he traces the history of the nation from the time of its first king, Saul, to the time of the captivity in Babylon, he mentions Saul only briefly and says little about the northern kingdom. He is concerned almost entirely with the Davidic line of kings who reigned in Jerusalem. The northern kingdom was a breakaway from the God-appointed kingdom of David. Its religion was a rebellion against the true worship of God that was centred on the temple in Jerusalem. The Chronicler’s reason for scarcely mentioning the northern kingdom is that he does not want to interest his readers in its sinful ways. For him, David’s is the only legitimate dynasty, Jerusalem the only legitimate capital, the temple the only legitimate sanctuary, and the Levitical priesthood the only legitimate religious order. In concentrating on the history of the southern kingdom (i.e. the dynasty of David), the Chronicler wants to show what an important part the one and only God-given religion played in the national life of God’s people. For this reason, features of Israel’s religious organization that are omitted from Samuel and Kings are given in great detail in Chronicles. On the other hand, failures of individual Davidic rulers that are found in Samuel and Kings are omitted from Chronicles. The Levites are of particular interest to the Chronicler. Whereas the writers of Samuel and Kings seldom mention them, the Chronicler speaks of them frequently, showing the important part they played in the nation’s affairs. He wants his readers to see how God intended the Davidic kind of civil administration and the Levitical kind of religious order to function in harmony for the benefit of the nation.
Contents of 1 Chronicles
Genealogies were useful in showing the returning captives how they fitted into God’s plan for the nation. After tracing the origins of Israel (1:1-54), the genealogies deal with the tribes of Judah and Simeon (2:1-4:43), the two and a half eastern tribes (5:1-26), the Levites (6:1-81), and the remaining tribes (7:1-8:40). The Chronicler then lists those who had recently gone to Jerusalem as the first group of returning captives (9:1-34). After dealing very briefly with the reign of Saul (9:35-10:14), the Chronicler deals at length with the reign of David, beginning with David’s rise to power (11:1-12:40). Having been made king, David brought the ark to Jerusalem and began organizing the singing and music that were to characterize public worship in Israel (13:1-16:36). When David said he wanted to build God a temple, God replied that he would build David a dynasty (16:37-17:27). The section closes with stories recalling David’s greatness (18:1-22:1). The final section of the book deals with David’s preparations for the temple that his son Solomon would later build. Having encouraged Solomon for this task (22:2-19), David made detailed arrangements concerning the functioning of the priests and Levites (23:1-26:32). Arrangements for military and civilian leaders are much less detailed (27:1-34). Before his death, David presented the new king to the people (28:1-29:30).
Contents of 2 Chronicles
Solomon was a king of great wisdom and wealth (1:1-17). For the Chronicler, however, his chief importance had to do with his construction of the temple in Jerusalem (2:1-7:22). Building programs and clever trading activities contributed further to Solomon’s greatness (8:1-9:31). Although the northern tribes broke away from Jerusalem after Solomon’s death, the Chronicler refused to recognize them as a separate legitimate kingdom. Solomon’s son Rehoboam ruled well as long as he followed the teaching of the Levitical priests, but when he introduced foreign religious practices, God punished him (10:1-13:22). Asa began a reform, but then he also departed from the ways of God (14:1-16:14). It was left to the next king, Jehoshaphat, to restore the nation to the ways of God. Priests and Levites played an important part in his reform (17:1-20:37). When Jezebel’s Baalism spread from the north into Judah (21:1-23:21), priests and Levites were again leaders in the reform that got rid of it, the king on this occasion being Joash (24:1-27). The prosperity of Judah under Uzziah and Jotham was followed by disaster and chaos under Ahaz (25:1-28:27), but Hezekiah then sought to correct matters with wide-sweeping reforms. The Chronicler deals with Hezekiah’s religious reforms at length (29:1-31:21), but discusses his political reforms only briefly (32:1-33). After the evil reigns of Manasseh and Amon (33:1-25), there was a final reform under Josiah. The Chronicler’s emphasis again is on the religious aspects of the reform (34:1-35:27). Babylon’s destruction of Jerusalem and the subsequent captivity are recorded, but with little detail. More important for the Chronicler’s readers are the current realities of release from captivity and return to the homeland (36:1-23).
CHURCH
After the repeated failures that characterized the early days of human history, God declared his purpose to choose for himself a people through whom he would work a plan of salvation for people everywhere. He began by choosing one man, Abraham, and promising to make from him a nation that would belong to God and be his channel of blessing to the world. The people of this nation, Israel, were therefore both the physical descendants of Abraham and the chosen people of God (Gen 12:1-3; Exod 6:7-8; 19:5-6; Ps 105:6; John 8:33,37; Acts 13:26). This did not mean, however, that all those born into the Israelite race were, because of their nationality, forgiven their sins and blessed with God’s eternal salvation. The history of Israel shows that from the beginning most of the people were ungodly and unrepentant. Certainly there were those who, like Abraham, trusted God and desired to follow him obediently, but they were always only a minority within the nation (Isa 1:4,11-20; Amos 5:14-15; Rom 11:2-7; 1 Cor 10:1-5; Heb 3:16). These were God’s true people, the true Israel, the true children of Abraham (Rom 2:28-29; 4:9-12; 9:6-8). From this faithful minority (or remnant) there came one person, Jesus the Messiah, who was the one particular descendant of Abraham to whom all God’s promises to Abraham pointed. God’s ideals for Israel and his promised blessings for the human race were fulfilled in Jesus (Gal 3:14,16). Jesus then took the few remaining faithful Israelites of his day and made them the nucleus of the new people of God, the Christian church (Matt 16:18). The church, then, was both old and new. It was old in that it was a continuation of that body of believers who in every age had remained faithful to God. It was new in that it would not formally come into existence till after Jesus’ death, resurrection and ascension (Matt 16:18,21; Acts 1:4-5; Titus 2:14; 1 Peter 2:9). It was ‘born’ a few days after Jesus’ ascension, on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4), and will reach its glorious destiny at Jesus’ return (Phil 3:20-21; Heb 12:22-24; Rev 19:7-9).
God’s new community
The word which Jesus used and which has been translated ‘church’ meant originally a collection of people – a meeting, gathering or community. It was the word used for the Old Testament community of Israel, and was particularly suitable for the new community, the Christian church, that came into being on the day of Pentecost (Exod 12:3,6; 35:1,4; Deut 9:10; 23:3; Matt 16:18; 18:17; Acts 5:11; 7:38; 8:1; 11:26). On that day Jesus, having returned to his heavenly Father, sent the Holy Spirit to indwell his disciples as he had promised (Luke 24:49; John 7:39; 14:16-17,26; 16:7). This was the baptism with the Holy Spirit of which Jesus had spoken and through which all who were already believers were bound together to form one united body, the church (Acts 1:4-5; 2:33; see BAPTISM WITH THE SPIRIT). From that time on, all who repent and believe the gospel are, through that same baptism with the Spirit, immediately made part of that one body and receive the gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:38,47; 1 Cor 12:13). This applies equally to all people, irrespective of sex, age, status or race, for all are one in Christ Jesus (Acts 2:17-18,39). The new people of God consists of Abraham’s spiritual descendants, those who have been saved through faith in Christ, regardless of their nationality or social standing (Gal 3:14,28-29). By his act of uniting in one body people who were once in conflict with each other, God has carried out part of a wider plan he has for his creation.
That plan is for the ultimate removal of all conflict and all evil from the universe, and the establishment of perfect peace and unity through Jesus Christ (Eph 1:9-10; 2:13-16; 3:8-11).
The body of Christ
Christ and the church, being inseparably united, make up one complete whole, just as the head and the body together make up one complete person. Through his resurrection and ascension, Jesus Christ became head over the church and the source of its life and growth (Eph 1:20-23; 4:15-16; Col 1:18; 2:19; 3:1-4). As the head has absolute control over the body, so Christ has supreme authority over the church (Eph 1:22-23). On the other hand, as the body shares in the life of the head, so the church shares in the life of the risen Christ. It is united with him in his victory over death and all the evil spiritual forces of the universe (Matt 16:18; Eph 1:21; 2:5-7; 3:10,21; Col 2:13-15). If the picture of the body emphasizes the life, unity and growth that Christ gives to the church, the picture of marriage emphasizes the love that Christ has for the church. That love was so great that, to gain the church as his bride, Christ laid down his life in sacrifice (Eph 5:25; cf. Acts 20:28). Both pictures illustrate Christ’s headship of the church (Eph 1:22-23; 5:23), and both make it clear that God can accept the church as holy and faultless only because it shares the life and righteousness of Christ (Eph 5:26-27; Col 1:22). This view of the church in all its perfection as the body of Christ is one that only God sees. The view that people in general see is one of imperfection, because the church exists in a world where everything is spoiled by human sin and failure (cf. 1 Cor 1:2 with 1 Cor 3:1-3; cf. Eph 1:1-4 with Eph 4:25-32). God sees the church as the total number of all believers in all nations in all eras – a vast, ongoing, international community commonly referred to as the church universal. But people see it only in the form of those believers who are living in a particular place at a particular time. Within what people in general see as the church there are genuine believers and those who have no true faith in Christ at all. Often it is difficult to tell the difference between the two, and the only certain division will take place at the final judgment. Only God knows which people are really his (Matt 13:47- 50; 25:31-46; 1 Cor 4:3-5; 10:1-11; 2 Cor 13:5; 2 Tim 2:19).
The local church
While the Bible sometimes speaks of the church as a timeless and universal community, more commonly it speaks of it as a group of Christians meeting together in a particular locality. This community is the church in that locality. It is the local expression, a sort of miniature, of the timeless universal church (Acts 13:1; 15:41; 20:17; 1 Cor 1:2). Each local church, though in fellowship with other local churches (Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 16:1-4; Col 4:15-16), is responsible directly to the head, Jesus Christ, in all things. The New Testament gives no guidelines for a central organization or head church to control all others. It lays down no set of laws either to hold the churches together in one body or to hold all the believers in one church together. Unity comes through a oneness of faith in the Spirit (Eph 4:4-6). It is therefore better to think of the church not as an organization or institution, but as a family. Christ is the head, and all the believers are brothers and sisters (Gal 6:10; Eph 2:19; Rom 15:30; 16:1,23). The strength of the church comes not from some organizational system, but from the spiritual life that each believer has and that all believers share in common (Acts 14:23; Phil 1:7; 2:1-2; 1 John 1:3; see FELLOWSHIP). According to Christ’s command and the early church’s example, those who repent and believe the gospel should be baptized (Matt 28:19-20; Acts 2:38,41; 10:48; see BAPTISM). By their faith they become members of Christ’s body, the church, and they show the truth of this union by joining with the Christians in their locality. In other words, having become part of the timeless universal church, they now become part of the local church (Acts 2:41,47). The Bible gives no instructions concerning where the church in any one locality should meet. (Churches in New Testament times seem to have met in private homes or any ready-made places they could find; see Acts 12:12; 19:9; 20:7-8; Rom 16:5,14-15; Col 4:15.) The meetings of the church are to be orderly and, what is more important, spiritually helpful (1 Cor 14:12,26,40). Christians must be built up through being taught the Scriptures and through having fellowship by worshipping, praying, singing praises and celebrating the Lord’s Supper together (Acts 2:42; 20:7,27; 1 Cor 10:16-17; 11:23-33; 14:15; see LORD’S SUPPER; WORSHIP). Christians must not look upon the church as a sort of private fellowship that exists solely for their own benefit. From the church they must go out to spread the gospel to others, baptizing those who believe, bringing them into the church, teaching them the Christian truths and making them true disciples of Jesus Christ (Matt 28:19-20; Acts 1:7-8; 8:4; Rom 10:14-17). In addition, the church should be concerned with helping those who are the victims of sickness, hunger, conflict, injustice and other misfortunes (Matt 25:34-40; Rom 12:8,13; Gal 6:10; James 1:27). As with preaching the gospel, this ministry concerns both the church’s own locality and distant regions (Matt 28:19-20; Acts 1:8; 2:45; 11:27-30; 13:2-4; Rom 15:25-26; see MISSION).
Leadership in the churches
Although the Bible gives clear guidelines concerning the responsibilities of the local church, it gives few organizational details. Christians grow in maturity as they exercise their judgment and carry out their responsibilities (Rom 12:6-8). This does not mean that people may do as they like. The Spirit of the living Christ dwells within the church (1 Cor 3:16), and he has appointed leaders in the church to guide and feed it (Acts 20:28). Their task is to work out how to apply the Bible’s timeless principles to the circumstances of their era and culture (1 Cor 14:26,40; 1 Thess 5:12-13; 1 Tim 3:15; 4:13-15; 2 Tim 2:7). Those leaders who are chiefly responsible for the church’s well-being are commonly called elders. Deacons are those who assist the elders by relieving them of some of the more routine affairs (Phil 1:1; 1 Tim 3:1,8; see ELDER; DEACON). People who fill these leadership positions may be gifted in various ways. God has given certain sorts of people to the church to help build it up – apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers (Eph 4:11) – and such people can be expected to be in positions of leadership in the church. Apostles and prophets appear to have been given to the church mainly to instruct and direct it during the period of its infancy (Eph 2:20; see APOSTLE; PROPHET). Evangelists are people with special ability in making known the gospel and establishing churches in places where previously there were none (Acts 14:1,21,23; 21:8; 2 Tim 4:5; see EVANGELIST). Pastors and teachers care for the church as a shepherd cares for his flock, feeding it with spiritual food and protecting it from spiritual dangers (John 21:15-17; Acts 20:28; 1 Tim 5:17; 1 Peter 5:2; see PASTOR; TEACHER). The Bible does not divide people too sharply into one or other of these categories, as there is clearly some overlapping within the functions. Also some people may combine within them several of these gifts; e.g. Paul (Rom 15:20; 1 Tim 1:1; 2:7), James (Gal 1:19; 2:9-10), Timothy (1 Tim 4:13-16; 2 Tim 4:5), Barnabas (Acts 11:22-26; 14:14), Silas (Acts 15:32; 17:10-14) and others.
Responsibilities of church members
There is no suggestion in the Bible that people with these gifts are the only ones who do spiritual work in the church. On the contrary, the purpose of their work is to equip others to work. They build up the Christians and so prepare them for fuller Christian service (Eph 4:11-13). The gifted ones teach others who, in turn, pass on the teaching to others (2 Tim 2:2). Every member of the church has some gift that the Holy Spirit has given for the service of God (1 Cor 12:11,18). Just as the human body is made up of many parts, all with different functions, so is the church which is Christ’s body. Yet with the variety there is equality. The church, unlike ancient Israel, has no exclusive class of religious officials who have spiritual privileges that ordinary people do not have (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12,27; Eph 2:18-20). There are many gifts, but Christians must use these gifts in dependence upon the Spirit’s power and in accordance with the Spirit’s teaching (1 Cor 12:4-11; 13:1-2; 14:37). If a local church is to operate properly, each person in that church must find out which gifts the Holy Spirit has given him or her and then develop them (Rom 12:6-8; 1 Tim 4:14-16). When people act with such honesty and responsibility, they will not fall to the temptations of pride on one hand or jealousy on the other. Instead, through the care of the members one for another, the church will be built up (1 Cor 12:14-30; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT).
Right attitudes and conduct
Another picture of the church is that of a building (1 Cor 3:9-10); specifically, a temple in which God dwells (1 Peter 2:5). Apostles and prophets form the foundation, other believers form the main building, and all is built around and built into Christ. This emphasizes again the cooperation and harmony that there should be among all within the church (Eph 2:20-22). It also emphasizes that the church must be holy, for it is God’s dwelling place (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16-17). Since God’s church is holy, it must deal with those who are guilty of serious errors in wrong teaching or wrong behaviour (1 Cor 5:1,2; 6:1-5; Titus 1:10-13; 3:10). Wrongdoers must at least be warned or rebuked (2 Thess 3:14-15; 1 Tim 1:3-7; 5:19-20), both for their own benefit and for the benefit of others in the church who may be affected by their wrongdoing (1 Cor 5:6-7; 2 Tim 2:14-18; Heb 12:15; 3 John 9-10). Whatever action the church takes against wrongdoers should be with a view to restoring them to healthy spiritual life. It should not drive them further away from God and his people (2 Cor 2:5-11; Gal 6:1). Some, however, may be so hardened in their sinful ways that they refuse to acknowledge their wrongdoing, and the church may have to expel them from its fellowship.
But there is still the hope that because of such severe punishment, the wrongdoers may see the seriousness of their errors and turn from them (Matt 18:15-17; 1 Cor 5:1-5,11-13; 1 Tim 1:19-20). The imperfections in the church can at times discourage people from full involvement in the church’s life. Some may even be tempted to try to live as Christians while keeping themselves apart from the church. But a person cannot reject the church and still live the Christian life properly. The church is not a club that a few like-minded people have formed, but a community that God himself has formed (Matt 16:18; Eph 3:9-11; Col 3:15). It is the body of Christ, and all Christians are part of it. They must therefore learn to function as part of the body if they are to function properly as Christians. Participation in the life of the church is necessary for Christian growth and maturity (Eph 4:12-13).
CILICIA
In New Testament times, the Roman administration governed the province of Cilicia from the neighbouring province of Syria. People often spoke of Syria and Cilicia as one combined region (Acts 15:23,41; Gal 1:21). The main Roman road from Syria to Asia Minor passed through Cilicia, and Paul travelled this road when setting out on his second and third missionary journeys (Acts 15:41; 18:22-23; for map see PAUL). Much of Cilicia was mountainous and a home for robbers. It was no doubt one of the places Paul had in mind when he spoke of the dangers he frequently faced from robbers (2 Cor 11:26). His home town of Tarsus was the chief city of Cilicia (Acts 21:39).
CIRCUMCISION
Circumcision was a minor surgical operation carried out on baby boys to remove the foreskin from the penis. It was practised among various ancient Near Eastern peoples and had certain health benefits, but for the Israelites it had, in addition, a special religious significance.
Meaning of circumcision
The first person God commanded to be circumcised was Abraham. God had made a covenant with Abraham to be his God, to give him a multitude of descendants who would be his special people, and to give those people Canaan as their homeland. Circumcision was the sign of that covenant (Gen 17:1-11; see COVENANT). As a permanent mark in the body, circumcision symbolized the permanency of God’s covenant with his people. Because of its significance for personal cleanliness, it symbolized also the purity that the covenant demanded of them. God required that Abraham, his household, and all his descendants throughout future generations be circumcised if they were to be his people according to the covenant (Gen 17:9-13; Acts 7:8). Abraham believed God’s promises and acted upon his commands. His circumcision sealed his faith and demonstrated his obedience (Rom 4:11). The covenant had originated in God’s grace, but the Israelites had to respond with faithful obedience if they were to enjoy the covenant’s blessing. If a man was not circumcised, he and his household were cut off from the covenant (Gen 17:14). Circumcision was usually carried out when the child was eight days old (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). But during Israel’s years in the wilderness between Egypt and Canaan, the people failed to circumcise their new-born children. They neglected the first requirement of the covenant. Therefore, before they could take possession of the land promised to them in the covenant, they had to circumcise all who had been born during the previous forty years (Josh 5:2-9).
Jewish misunderstandings
If circumcision was a sign of cleanness, uncircumcision was a sign of uncleanness (Exod 6:12; Lev 26:41; Isa 52:1). Israelites prided themselves that, because they were circumcised, they were God’s people. They called themselves ‘the circumcised’ (or ‘the circumcision’; Gal 2:7-8; Eph 2:11; Col 4:11), and despised the Gentiles as ‘the uncircumcised’ (1 Sam 14:6; 17:26; 31:4; Eph 2:11). In their self-satisfaction the Israelites forgot that circumcision was also intended to be a sign of obedience (Gen 17:10). Therefore, circumcised Israelites who were disobedient to God were no better in God’s sight than uncircumcised Gentiles. Though physically circumcised, spiritually they were uncircumcised, that is, unclean in God’s sight (Jer 9:25-26; Acts 7:51; Rom 2:25; cf. Deut 10:16; 30:6). In fact, the uncircumcised who obeyed God was more acceptable to God than the circumcised who disobeyed him (Rom 2:26-27).
Israelites believed also that the only people who were God’s people were those who kept the law of Moses. Since the law commanded circumcision, they believed that a person had to be circumcised to be saved (Lev 12:3; John 7:23; Acts 15:1,5; 21:21; see LAW). But circumcision had never been a requirement for salvation. The law of Moses set out regulations for those who had already become God’s people as a result of the covenant he had made with Abraham. The law was not a means of salvation, and neither was circumcision. Abraham was saved by faith, and that occurred before the law was given and at a time when he was still uncircumcised. He received circumcision later, as an outward sign of the inward faith that he already had (Rom 4:1-2,10-11; Gal 3:17- 18). Abraham may be the physical father of the Israelites, but more importantly he is the spiritual father of all who are saved by faith, whether or not they are Israelites and whether or not they are circumcised (Rom 4:11-12). The true Israelites, the true people of God, are not those who have received circumcision, but those who have received inward cleansing from sin (Rom 2:28-29; Gal 6:15).
No longer necessary
Circumcision was a sign of God’s covenant with Abraham, and that covenant reached its fulfilment in Jesus Christ. Through him, the one descendant of Abraham to whom all the promises pointed, people of all nations can receive the blessings of God’s salvation (Gen 12:1-3; Luke 1:54-55,72-73; Rom 4:16- 17; Gal 3:6-9,16,29). Now that Christ has come, the legal requirements of the former covenant no longer apply (Eph 2:15; Col 2:14-15). More than that, if people try to win God’s favour by keeping those legal requirements, they cannot be saved (Gal 5:2-4). People are saved only through faith in Christ, regardless of whether they are circumcised or uncircumcised (Rom 3:30; 1 Cor 7:19; Gal 5:6). For Christian, ‘circumcision’ is spiritual, not physical. It is the cleansing from sin and uncleanness that comes through Jesus Christ (Col 2:11-12). Those so cleansed are the true people of God, the true ‘circumcision’ (Phil 3:3; cf. Rom 2:28-29).
CITY
In the language of the Bible any organized human settlement may be called a city. This applies whether the settlement was large or small (Gen 4:17; 13:12; Deut 21:3; Jonah 1:2). Larger cities were walled, with a central fortress to provide the citizens with defence against attack (Num 13:28; Josh 6:5; Judg 9:51; 2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kings 4:13; 2 Kings 14:13). During an attack, people living in the farming villages around the city took refuge inside the city walls (Num 35:2; Josh 17:11; 1 Sam 6:18). In some cases farmers had their fields outside the city and their homes inside. They worked in the fields during the day, but returned to the city before nightfall, when the gates were shut (Josh 2:5; Judg 9:43-44; see also WAR).
Immediately inside the main gate of the city was an open area where people sat, talked, sold goods and conducted business. It was also the place where the elders of the city sat to decide cases brought before them for legal judgment. This open area was popularly called the ‘gate’ of the city (Gen 19:1; Deut 21:19; Ruth 4:1- 2; 2 Kings 7:1). As commerce grew in Israel, city life became more and more characterized by greed and injustice, the chief offenders being ruthless merchants and corrupt officials. The gate of the city, instead of being a place to find justice and contentment, became a centre of bribery and oppression (Isa 29:20-21; Amos 5:10-15; 8:4-6).
Godly people saw the wickedness of city life as symbolic of the wickedness of humankind in general. To them the world was like one great evil city (Rev 11:8). They pictured human society, organized in arrogant defiance of God, as the great city Babylon, doomed to be destroyed (Rev 18:2-24; cf. Dan 4:30; see BABYLON). By contrast, the eternal city where God will dwell with his people is called new Jerusalem, a city from which all forms of evil are excluded (Rev 21:2-4,22-27; see JERUSALEM). The Bible considers that Christians are already citizens of this heavenly city. In the present world they are considered to be temporary residents, whose real citizenship is in the ‘Jerusalem which is above’ (Gal 4:26; Phil 3:20; Heb 11:13-16; 12:22; 13:14; 1 Peter 2:11).
CITY OF REFUGE
Scattered throughout the tribes of Israel were forty-eight cities given to the Levites. Among these were six cities known as cities of refuge (Num 35:6-7). A city of refuge was a place where a person who had killed another could flee for safety till the judges decided whether the death was intentional or accidental. Those judged to be guilty of murder were executed. Those judged to have caused the death accidentally could continue living in the city of refuge.
This may have limited their freedom, but at least it gave them official protection. In the city of refuge they were safe from any revenge from the family of the dead person (Exod 21:12-14; Num 35:9-14; Josh 20:2-6). There were three cities of refuge in Israel’s territory west of Jordan (Kedesh, Shechem and Hebron), and three in its territory east of Jordan (Golan, Ramothgilead and Bezer). On each side of Jordan there was one city in the northern section, one in the central and one in the southern (Num 35:14-15; Josh 20:7-9). All six cities had clearly marked roads leading to them so that the refugee could reach safety quickly (Deut 19:2-6).
CLEANSING
See ATONEMENT; FORGIVENESS; UNCLEANNESS.
COINS
In the days before people used money in buying and selling, they usually paid for goods by exchanging other goods, such as farm produce, animals or jewellery. Later they found it more convenient to use precious metals, particularly silver, which they usually measured by weight. Among the Israelites, the common unit of silver was the shekel, which was about sixteen grams (Gen 23:16; Lev 5:15; 1 Kings 10:29; Jer 32:9). Larger amounts were measured by the talent, which was about fifty kilograms (1 Kings 9:14; 16:24; 20:39). Merchants were sometimes dishonest and used extra heavy weights when weighing the buyer’s money (Lev 19:36; Prov 11:1; Amos 8:5; Micah 6:11; see WEIGHTS).
When coin money came into use, the practice of weighing money gradually died out (Ezra 2:69; 8:27). Some of the old names for weights now became names for coins (e.g. see SHEKEL). Coins were of gold, silver or copper, depending on their value (Matt 10:9). Money of various kinds was in use in Palestine during the New Testament era. There was official Roman money, local Jewish money, and old Greek money from the days of the former Greek Empire. The Jewish temple authorities accepted only certain kinds of money, which resulted in the practice of money-changers setting up business in the temple (Matt 21:12). It is not possible to give accurate present-day equivalents of the values of ancient coins, but New Testament references give an indication of the values of some coins in the first century. For example, the coin mentioned in Jesus’ story of the hired vineyard-workers, the Roman denarius, represented the wages of a labourer for one day (Matt 20:2). The denarius is mentioned also in Matt 22:19, Luke 10:35 and Rev 6:6. It was the approximate equivalent of the Greek drachma (mentioned in Luke 15:8).
The smallest coin in use was the Jewish lepton (referred to in the story of the poor widow; Mark 12:41-44), and more than a hundred of these were needed to equal one denarius. The Greek stater (referred to in Matt 17:27) was the approximate equal of the Jewish shekel, which paid the temple tax for two people (Exod 30:13; Matt 17:24-27). Originally the stater was a two-drachma coin, but when this coin went out of use, the name stater was given to the four-drachma coin. One hundred drachmas (or a hundred denarii) was equal to one mina, the gold coin that the nobleman in Jesus’ parable entrusted to each of his ten servants (Luke 19:13). Sixty minas equalled one talent. The talent was not a coin, but a unit used in counting large amounts of money. It is referred to in two other parables of Jesus (Matt 18:24; 25:15; see TALENT).
COLOSSAE
Although Colossae was on the main highway from Syria to Ephesus, Paul apparently did not visit the church there during his missionary travels recorded in Acts (Col 1:4; 2:1). Colossae was situated in a part of the province of Asia where Paul was forbidden to preach during his second missionary journey (Acts 16:6-8; for map see ASIA). The church in Colossae was probably founded during Paul’s stay in Ephesus on his third missionary journey, when the Ephesian converts took the gospel to the towns of the surrounding countryside (Acts 19:8-10). Epaphras appears to have been the person chiefly responsible for the establishment of the church in Colossae (Col 1:7). At the time Paul wrote his letter to the Colossian church, it met in the home of Philemon (Col 4:9; Philem 1-2,10-12; see COLOSSIANS, LETTER TO THE).
COMFORT
See ENCOURAGEMENT.
COMMUNION
In simple terms, ‘communion’ means a sharing together in something that people hold in common. In present-day language, ‘fellowship’ is the word usually used to indicate communion (Acts 2:42; for further discussion see FELLOWSHIP). The particular act of fellowship with Christ where Christians share together in a token or symbolic ‘meal’ of bread and wine is commonly called Holy Communion, or the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 10:16-17). (For further discussion see LORD’S SUPPER.)
COMPASSION
See MERCY.
CONCUBINE
Israelites of the Old Testament era lived in a world where a common practice was for a married man to take additional wives, known as concubines. The practice was contrary to God’s plan for marriage (namely, one man and one woman united for life, to the exclusion of all others; see MARRIAGE), but human society had moved far away from God’s plan (Rom 1:20-32). Moses introduced laws to protect concubines for much the same reason as he introduced laws to protect slaves. Both slavery and concubinage were wrong, but the practices were so deeply rooted that they could not be removed immediately. However, laws could control them and so start a movement that would lead to their eventual removal (Exod 21:7-11; Deut 21:15-17; see also SLAVERY).
A man obtained his concubines sometimes by choosing them from among his slaves or war captives, and sometimes by receiving them as gifts. Through bearing him children, concubines helped strengthen his household and increase his social influence (Gen 16:1-2; 25:1; 29:24,29; 30:4-13; 36:12; Deut 21:10- 11; 2 Sam 5:13-14; 2 Chron 11:21). Although Israelite law tolerated concubinage, it did not tolerate sexual relations with a person who was not one’s marriage partner. To commit adultery with another man’s wife was a far worse sin than to have several wives oneself (Lev 20:10; 2 Sam 11:2-5; 12:11-12).
God warned Israelite kings against glorifying themselves through building large harems, but most kings ignored his warnings (Deut 17:15-17; 2 Sam 15:16; 1 Kings 11:3; 2 Chron 11:21; cf. Esther 2:14). People considered the harem to be such a symbol of kingly power, that a new king established his claim to the throne by claiming the former king’s harem (2 Sam 3:7-8; 12:7-8; 16:20-22; 1 Kings 2:21-22). Yet concubines proved to be a source of trouble to Israel’s kings. The presence of so many wives and children in the palace created family conflicts (2 Sam 3:2-5; 13:20-22; cf. Gen 21:8-10; Judg 8:31; 9:2-5), and the idols that foreign concubines brought into the palace led believers away from God (1 Kings 11:4).
CONFESSION
In many languages, including the languages of the Bible, ‘confession’ is a word with a range of meanings. In the Bible’s usage of the word, these meanings fall into two groups, those concerned with confession of sins, and those concerned with confession of faith.
Confession of sins
God is willing to forgive people’s sins, but he requires on their part repentance and faith; that is, he requires that they see their sin as rebellion against God, that they confess it to God as deserving his punishment, that they turn from it decisively, and that they trust in God’s mercy to forgive them (Ezra 10:10-11; Ps 32:5; 51:3-4; Matt 3:6; 6:12; Luke 18:13; 1 John 1:5-10). There is no suggestion that sin causes believers to lose their salvation and that confession is necessary to win it back. When sinners turn to Christ for salvation, God declares them righteous and free from the penalty of sin, on the basis of what Christ has done. Failures will spoil their fellowship with God and they will need to confess them, but if their faith is truly in what Christ has done for them, their salvation is secure (1 John 1:6-9; 2:1-2). (For fuller details see JUSTIFICATION, sub-heading ‘Justification and forgiveness’.) If believers sin against others, they must also confess their sin to those concerned and put right whatever wrong they have done (Num 5:6-8; Matt 5:23-24; James 5:16). Such confession is usually a private matter, but some cases may require public confession (Acts 19:18). Confession of sin is a necessary part of prayer, and a lack of confession could be one reason why prayers are not answered (1 Kings 8:33-36; Ezra 9:6-7; Neh 1:4-11; Ps 66:18; Dan 9:4-9; Matt 6:12; Luke 18:13). (See also FORGIVENESS.)
Confession of faith
If confession of sin is, in a sense, negative (admitting oneself to be a wrongdoer), confession of faith is, by contrast, positive (declaring oneself to be a believer in and follower of God). The confession of faith that Christians make is an open acknowledgment of their belief in Jesus Christ as the Son of God, the Messiah, the chosen one of God who died on the cross and rose victoriously to be crowned Lord of all (Matt 16:16; John 1:49; Rom 10:9; 1 Tim 6:12; 1 John 4:2,15). Jesus made such a confession in relation to himself and suffered persecution as a result (Mark 14:60- 62; John 18:33-37; 1 Tim 6:13). When his followers make a similar confession, they too may be persecuted (Matt 10:32-33; John 9:22; 12:42). Those who by their confession of faith identify themselves with Christ will be rewarded by God, but those who deny Christ will suffer God’s judgment (Matt 10:32- 33; 2 Tim 2:11-13; 1 John 2:22-23). One day all people will confess Jesus Christ as Lord, to the glory of God (Phil 2:11).
CONSCIENCE
There is within the human mind something that acts as a moral judge. It tells people what is right and wrong, urges them to do right, and gives them feelings of either innocence or guilt, depending on whether they obey or disobey it. This moral judge we call conscience (Rom 2:15-16; 1 John 3:19-21). Although the Old Testament does not mention the word ‘conscience’, it certainly refers to the activity of conscience (Gen 3:7-8; 2 Sam 24:10; Job 27:6; Ps 32:3; 51:3-4). Conscience is not a perfect judge, because sin has affected the conscience as it has affected every other part of human nature (Luke 11:35; Eph 2:1-3).
Therefore the conscience, like the rest of human nature, needs cleansing from the effects of sin, and this comes about only through the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ (Heb 9:14; 10:22). The conscience also needs instruction, because it can only make judgments according to the knowledge it possesses (Rom 2:14-15; 1 Cor 8:7,10). Christians must therefore train and discipline the conscience so that it is well instructed, pure, active and sensitive (Acts 24:16; Eph 4:17,23; 1 Tim 1:5,19; 2 Tim 1:3).
When people ignore conscience, it can easily become defiled, hardened or dead (1 Tim 4:2; Titus 1:15). A properly developed conscience will lead people to do what is right, whether a written law demands it or not (Rom 13:5; 1 Peter 3:16). Christians must be careful to keep the conscience clear in all that they do (2 Cor 1:12; Heb 13:18). At the same time they must realize that a clear conscience does not necessarily mean they are faultless (1 Cor 4:4-5). Sometimes the conscience may be clear in relation to something they want to do, but they decide not to do it because of the bad effect it could have on others (Rom 14:22-23; 1 Cor 10:28-29). The conscience must be clear before God, not just clear according to standards people set for themselves (Acts 23:1; Rom 9:1).
CONSECRATION
Consecration means setting apart people or things from the common affairs of life and dedicating them to God. In the religion of Old Testament Israel, these ‘set apart’ people or things were called ‘holy’, and the act of declaring, acknowledging or making them holy was called sanctification, consecration, or dedication (Exod 13:2; 29:1,27,36). (For details of this basic meaning of consecration see HOLINESS; SANCTIFICATION.) The idea of consecration is common also in the New Testament. Though the word itself is not always used, the meaning is consistent with that of the Old Testament. Priests and the sacrifices they offered were consecrated to God (Exod 28:38,40-41), and Jesus seems to have been referring to priestly service when he spoke of himself as being consecrated to God (John 17:19). He set himself apart to do his Father’s will, and this meant dying for sin (John 12:27; 17:4).
Being the believer’s great high priest, he offered himself as the perfect sacrifice (Heb 10:11-14; see PRIEST). Jesus’ priestly work not only brings forgiveness to believers, but it also sets them apart for God (John 17:19). This involves more than the salvation of believers; it involves the practical offering of themselves to God as living sacrifices (Acts 20:24; Rom 12:1). Although selected people may be consecrated in the particular sense of being set apart for certain tasks (Jer 1:5; Gal 1:15-16), all Christians should be consecrated in the sense of being fully devoted to God. Christ has bought them at the price of his blood and they belong to him. They are disciples of their Lord and servants of their Master, and their commitment to him must be total (Matt 10:37-39; 1 Cor 7:23; 2 Cor 10:5; Col 3:23-24; see DISCIPLE; SERVANT).
CONVERSION
Although the word ‘conversion’ may be rare in the Bible, the idea is common enough. People are converted when they turn from darkness to light, from Satan to God, from dead idols to the living Christ (Acts 15:3; 26:18; 1 Thess 1:9-10; cf. Matt 13:15; 2 Cor 3:16). Their changed lives are the outward demonstration of that inward turning which the Bible more commonly calls repentance (Acts 3:19; Acts 26:20; see REPENTANCE). Through repentance, believing sinners receive the salvation of God. They are born anew; they become new people (2 Cor 5:17; see REGENERATION; SALVATION).
CORBAN
See VOW.
CORINTH
The city of Corinth was a prosperous manufacturing and trading centre in Achaia, the southern province of Greece (see map under ACTS, BOOK OF). An overland route went north from Corinth to Macedonia, and sea routes went east, west and south. The city was so well known for its immorality and vice that people of the time commonly referred to a person of loose morals as one who ‘behaved like a Corinthian’ (cf. 1 Cor 6:9-11,15-18). Paul’s first visit to Corinth was on his second missionary journey.
He stayed eighteen months, and during that time he founded the Corinthian church (Acts 18:1-17). Another church was established at Cenchreae, the seaport a few kilometres east (Acts 18:18; Rom 16:1-2). Paul revisited the church at Corinth during his third missionary journey (Acts 20:2-3). He also wrote the church a number of letters, two of which have been preserved in the New Testament. (For the added information these letters give concerning life in Corinth see CORINTHIANS, LETTERS TO THE).
CORINTHIANS, LETTERS TO THE
Corinth was an important port in the Roman province of Achaia in the south of Greece. It was a lively commercial centre, and was well known for its colourful lifestyle and low moral standards (see CORINTH). Paul stayed in Corinth for eighteen months during his second missionary journey and established a church there (Acts 18:1-21). Since many of the people who made up the church came from a background of vice and immorality (cf. 1 Cor 1:26- 27; 6:9-11), it is not surprising that problems arose in the church.
Background to 1 Corinthians
After leaving Corinth, Paul heard that some of the Christians had moral difficulties, so he wrote them a letter to pass on helpful advice. The letter has not been preserved (1 Cor 5:9). Paul saw problems arising in the Corinthian church and sent Timothy to Corinth in an effort to deal with them. Paul at this time was in Ephesus, and Timothy travelled to Corinth by way of Macedonia (Acts 19:1,22; 1 Cor 4:17; 16:10). Meanwhile some Corinthian believers visited Paul in Ephesus. They told him that factions had appeared in the Corinthian church, because people had foolishly made favourites of different teachers (1 Cor 1:10-13). Paul heard also of immorality in the church (1 Cor 5:1) and disputes between Christians in the public law courts (1 Cor 6:1). Not long after this, a group of representatives from the Corinthian church arrived in Ephesus with questions about other problems (1 Cor 7:1; 16:17). With all these matters before him, Paul decided to write at length to the Corinthian church. The letter is known to us as First Corinthians. Paul probably sent it to Corinth direct by boat, for he expected it to get there before Timothy (1 Cor 16:8-10).
Contents of 1 Corinthians
After his introduction (1:1-9), Paul deals with the immature and worldly attitudes that the Christians had shown through their quarrelling. The divisions were not because Paul had done anything wrong (1:10-17), but because the Corinthians had placed too much emphasis on human wisdom (1:18-31). Paul then shows the difference between worldly wisdom and spiritual wisdom (2:1-16), and rebukes the Corinthians for their lack of spiritual growth (3:1-9). He warns that whether people help build up the church or help destroy it, they are accountable to God for their actions (3:10-23). Therefore, they should make sure that they have the right attitude towards God’s servants (4:1-21). Additional rebukes follow when Paul deals with the moral faults in the church: first a case of sexual immorality (5:1-13), then the matter of legal disputes between members of the same church (6:1-11). He gives a specific warning against the temptations of prostitution in Corinth (6:12-20). In answering the questions raised by the representatives from Corinth, Paul begins by dealing with difficulties in marriage relationships (7:1-16) and problems faced by the unmarried and widows (7:17- 40). Concerning food offered to idols, Paul urges the Christians not to misuse their freedom (8:1-13). Whatever their rights, they should follow his example and deny themselves their rights for the sake of others (9:1-27). They should remember Israel’s disastrous experiences with idolatry (10:1-13), and realize that idol feasts are a form of idol fellowship (10:14-22). Christians must consider the effect their behaviour will have on their fellow believers (10:23-11:1). Concerning public worship, Paul talks about the orderliness that is required when people pray or prophesy (11:2-16) and when they eat the Lord’s Supper together (11:17-34). He speaks of the variety of spiritual gifts in the church (12:1-31), emphasizing that Christians must exercise such gifts in love (13:1- 13). In particular he deals with the gift of tongues, because some in Corinth were misusing it (14:1-40). Another misunderstanding in the Corinthian church concerned the resurrection of believers at the return of Christ. Paul points to Christ’s resurrection as the guarantee of the resurrection of all who are united with him (15:1-28). Whatever the nature of the resurrection body, it will be patterned on Christ’s and suited to life in the eternal kingdom (15:29-58). Having reached this triumphant climax, Paul concludes his letter with a few final instructions and personal notes (16:1-24).
Background to 2 Corinthians
Paul planned to visit Corinth after finishing his work in Ephesus (Acts 19:21; 1 Cor 16:5-9). (Altogether Paul was in Ephesus three years; Acts 20:31.) When Timothy returned to Ephesus from Corinth, the news he brought was bad. Neither Paul’s letter nor Timothy’s visit had solved the problems. In fact, the situation had become worse, with the result that Paul made a quick trip to Corinth (as he had warned; 1 Cor 4:19-21) in an effort to deal with the rebels. There was much opposition to Paul in Corinth, and the trip was very painful for him (2 Cor 2:1). This was only Paul’s second visit to Corinth, and is the trip he refers to in 2 Cor 13:1-2 when he was about to visit the city a third time. Upon returning to Ephesus, Paul heard that his visit, instead of helping to improve matters, had only made his opponents more rebellious. Rather than rush back in anger and perhaps later be sorry for his rashness, he wrote a letter. It was a very severe letter and was taken to Corinth by Titus. Though referred to in Paul’s writings, the letter has not been preserved (2 Cor 2:3-4; 7:8; 12:18). Having finished his work in Ephesus, Paul planned to go north to Troas and Macedonia, and then go on to Corinth. Titus was to return from Corinth via Macedonia and meet Paul in Troas, but Paul was so anxious to get news of the Corinthians’ response to his severe letter, that he went across to Macedonia to meet Titus sooner (2 Cor 2:12-13; cf. Acts 20:1). The news Titus brought was good. The severe letter had brought the desired results and the Corinthians had at last submitted (2 Cor 7:5-6). With much relief, Paul wrote again to the church in Corinth, sending off with Titus the letter that we know as Second Corinthians (2 Cor 8:16-18).
Contents of 2 Corinthians
Paul begins the letter by encouraging the Christians in their various trials (1:1-11) and by explaining why he had made the painful visit and written the severe letter (1:12-2:4). Though the church had dealt with the person who had stirred up the rebellion, Paul wants them to be forgiving now that the man has repented (2:5-11). As he praises God for the triumphant end to the recent troubles (2:12-17), Paul is reminded of the glorious liberty of the Christian gospel (3:1-18). He emphasizes the sincerity and confidence of the true servant of Christ (4:1-18), particularly in view of the glorious future Christians can look forward to in the afterlife (5:1-10). Yet Christians have an obligation in the present life to make the message of Christ known to others (5:11-21), no matter what opposition they meet (6:1-13). Paul then speaks again of matters discussed in previous correspondence. He warns of some of the dangers in ungodly society (6:14-7:1), and expresses his joy at the Corinthians’ response to his severe letter (7:2-16). He writes at length about the collection of money to be sent to the poor in Jerusalem; for the Corinthians, in spite of making a good start the previous year, had now become lazy (8:1-15). He discusses arrangements for the collection (8:16-9:5) and speaks of the blessing of Christian giving (9:6- 15). The final section of the letter deals with Paul’s status as an apostle; for the Corinthians were still troubled by travelling preachers who claimed that they were apostles but Paul was not. Paul contrasts spiritual power with worldly boasting (10:1-18), and asserts that he is not inferior to others (11:1-15). He records his experiences as an apostle (11:16-33), especially one experience that was a genuine cause for boasting (12:1-10). In view of his plan to visit Corinth again soon (12:11-21), he urges all in the church to examine themselves so that he might not have to use his apostolic authority to discipline anyone (13:1- 14).
CORNELIUS
In the Roman regiment based in Caesarea was an officer named Cornelius who worshipped the God of Israel. He was one of the people known as God-fearers, who attended synagogue services, kept certain Jewish laws, prayed to God and gave money to the needy. God saw that Cornelius was seeking a better understanding of him, so sent Peter to tell him of Jesus Christ and lead him to complete salvation (Acts 10:1-8).
Peter told Cornelius of what Jesus Christ had done for the world through his life, death and resurrection. All who repented of their sins and believed in Jesus would receive forgiveness, regardless of their nationality (Acts 10:34-43). Not only did Cornelius and his friends believe, but they received the Holy Spirit as Jewish believers had previously (Acts 10:44-48; cf. 2:1-4). This was a significant event in the life of the early church, because it showed that God accepted Gentiles as he accepted Jews and gave his blessings to both without distinction (Acts 11:16-18).
CORNERSTONE
In ancient building practices, cornerstones were very important. The builders who laid the foundation had to shape and set the cornerstone of the foundation accurately, because the whole building was set out in relation to it. The building depended upon the cornerstone for its successful construction (Job 38:6; Isa 28:16; Jer 51:26). As the builders moved on to the construction of the walls, they used additional cornerstones to tie the main walls together, thereby bringing stability to the whole structure. The placing of the chief cornerstone was always a satisfying achievement, because this was the stone that guaranteed the perfection of the whole building.
The cornerstone therefore provided a useful illustration of triumph and achievement. On one occasion when an Israelite king was on the edge of a humiliating defeat, he was likened to a useless stone that the builders had thrown away; but when he triumphed, he was likened to a stone that they had brought back and made the chief cornerstone (Ps 118:21-24). In rejecting Jesus, the Jews were likened to builders who rejected the best stone of all. And just as a stone lying in the builders’ path can be an obstacle to them, so Jesus was an obstacle to the Jews.
As long as they would not believe in him, they could not be saved. They were like builders trying to complete the building without using the main stone. God then took the rejected stone (Jesus) and made him the chief cornerstone in the new house of God, the church. Christ is exalted to the highest place, and the whole church, which consists of ‘living stones’, is built around and built into him (Matt 21:42-43; Acts 4:11; Eph 2:19-20; 1 Peter 2:4-8). (See also STUMBLING BLOCK.)
COUNCIL
See SANHEDRIN.
COURAGE
One characteristic of the person who has a strong faith in God is courage in the midst of danger. There are, however, different kinds of dangers and different kinds of courage. Courage may be obvious where a person is brave or heroic in circumstances of physical danger on every side, such as in war or natural disasters (1 Sam 14:6-15; 2 Sam 23:13-19; Acts 27:24-26; 2 Cor 12:25-26). It is obvious also in cases where, by speaking or acting in a certain way, a person knowingly faces consequences where physical suffering is a clear possibility (Num 13:30-32; Dan 3:16-18; Mark 6:17-18; John 2:13-17; Acts 4:13; 5:27-30).
But greater courage may be necessary in cases where there is no immediate physical danger, but other pressures make it difficult to stand for what is right against a majority who want to do wrong (Prov 28:1; Luke 14:1-6; John 7:50-52; cf. Luke 22:54-62; Gal 2:11-14; see FEAR). The courage of believers comes through their faith in God (Deut 3:22; 1 Sam 17:45-46; Ps 56:3-4; 1 Cor 16:13) and is maintained through prayer (Ps 27:14; Acts 4:29; Eph 6:18-19). But it still involves effort, since it requires people to set out deliberately to do what they know will be dangerous (Mark 15:43). Such courage is an example to others, urging them to greater confidence and increased boldness (Phil 1:12-14). Like the biblical expression ‘Be of good courage’, it is a way of giving encouragement to those who need it (Josh 1:6-7,9; 2 Sam 10:12; see ENCOURAGEMENT).
COVENANT
A covenant was an agreement between two parties that laid down conditions and guaranteed benefits, depending upon a person’s keeping or breaking the covenant. It was sealed by some form of witness (Gen 21:22-32; 31:44-54; 1 Sam 18:3-4; Mal 2:14). Covenants between God and the people he created, however, differed from purely human covenants. They were not agreements between equals, because God was always the one who gave, and people were always the ones who received. No human being could negotiate an agreement with God or make demands upon him. God’s promises originated in his sovereign grace alone, and those who received those promises could do nothing but accept his directions.
Through one man to the world
From the time of the earliest recorded covenant (God’s covenant with Noah, and with the human race through him), features of grace are prominent. The covenant originated in God’s grace and depended upon God’s grace for its fulfilment. The rainbow was the sign, or witness, that sealed the covenant (Gen 6:18; 9:8-17; see GRACE). Having promised to preserve the human race (Gen 9:15-16), God then revealed that he had a plan of salvation for it. This plan again was based on a covenant that originated in God’s grace. In his sovereign will God chose one man, Abraham, promising him a multitude of descendants who would become a nation, receive Canaan as their homeland, and be God’s channel of blessing to the world (Gen 12:1-3; 15:18-21; 17:2-8; Acts 3:25). God confirmed his promise to Abraham by a covenant ceremony. The ancient custom was for the two parties to kill an animal, cut it in halves, then pass between the two halves, calling down the fate of the slaughtered animals upon themselves should they break the covenant (Gen 15:9-11; Jer 34:18).
But in Abraham’s case, only God (symbolized by a smoking fire-pot and a flaming torch) passed between the halves of the animal. He alone made the covenant and guaranteed its fulfilment (Gen 15:17). Abraham, however, had a responsibility to respond to God’s grace, and his response would determine whether he would enjoy the covenant benefits. A truly spiritual relationship could exist only where people responded to God in faith and obedience. The rite of circumcision, which God gave as the sign and seal of the covenant, gave Abraham and his descendants the opportunity to demonstrate such faith and obedience. Those who responded to God’s grace by being circumcised kept the covenant; those who did not were cut off from it. The covenant depended upon God, but only those who were obedient to God experienced the communion with God that was the covenant’s central blessing (Gen 17:9-14; see CIRCUMCISION; OBEDIENCE.)
Developed through Israel
Once the promised nation existed and was on the way to its promised homeland, God renewed the covenant made earlier with Abraham, this time applying it to the whole nation. Since Moses was the mediator through whom God worked in dealing with the people, the covenant is sometimes called the Mosaic covenant. It is also called the Sinaitic covenant, after Mt Sinai, where the ceremony took place. God, in his sovereign grace, had saved the people of Israel from bondage in Egypt and taken them into a close relationship with himself. Grace was again the basis of God’s covenant dealings (Exod 2:24; 3:16; 4:22; 6:6-8; 15:13; 19:4-6; 20:2). As in the covenant with Abraham, so in the covenant with his descendants, the central blessing was communion with God; for he was their God and they were his people (Gen 17:7; Exod 6:7; Lev 26:12). Again, the people would enjoy this blessing only as they were holy in life and obedient to God (Exod 19:5-6). The people understood this and agreed to be obedient to all God’s commands.
They were in no position to argue with God; they could do nothing but surrender completely to his will (Exod 24:7-8; see also LAW). The two parties to the covenant were then bound together in a blood ritual. Half the blood was thrown against the altar (representing God) and half sprinkled on the people (Exod 24:3-8). But this blood ritual was more than just a dramatic way of swearing loyalty to the covenant. The Passover had shown the people of Israel that blood symbolized life laid down to release those under condemnation of death (Exod 12:13). Blood was linked with release from the penalty of sin; therefore, the blood ritual at Sinai was an indication to Israel that it began its formal existence as God’s covenant people in a condition of ceremonial purity (Heb 9:19-22; see BLOOD). All this ceremonial procedure emphasized once more that the covenant with Israel, following the covenant with Abraham, was based on divine grace, not human effort (Gal 3:17-18). Nevertheless, the people had to keep their part of the covenant if they were to enjoy its benefits (Exod 19:5; cf. Gen 17:9). God had no obligation to bless his people when they disobeyed his covenant commands, though in his mercy he was patient with them (Lev 26:27-33; Deut 4:25-31; 7:9-10; Neh 9:33; Heb 3:16-19).
Note on the form of the covenant
The covenant between God and Israel was of a kind that people of the time understood. It was similar in form to the common Near Eastern treaty by which a sovereign overlord made a covenant with his subject peoples. Such a treaty was not a negotiated agreement. It was an authoritative document prepared by the overlord, declaring his sovereignty over his people and laying down the order of life he required of them. The features of these ancient documents are well illustrated in the book of Deuteronomy, which was written in the form of a covenant document. (For details see DEUTERONOMY. Concerning the illustration that likens the covenant between God and Israel to the marriage covenant see LOVE, sub-heading ‘Steadfast love’.)
Towards a specific goal through
David After the promised nation had become established in the promised land, God revealed the next stage in directing his covenant purposes towards their ultimate goal. The promised offspring of Abraham through whom God would send his salvation to the world was Jesus the Messiah (Gen 12:3,7; Gal 3:16,29). God prepared Israel to produce the Messiah by choosing from the nation one person, King David, and promising that his dynasty would be the channel through which the Messiah would come. God gave David this promise by means of a covenant that followed on from his earlier covenants, namely, those with Abraham and with the nation Israel (2 Sam 7:12-17; 23:5; Ps 89:3-4,28-37). Jesus therefore was the true fulfilment of all God’s covenant purposes. The Abrahamic covenant led to the Sinaitic covenant, which in turn led to the Davidic covenant, which led finally to Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world (Luke 1:32-33,72-73; Acts 13:17-23).
The new covenant
Former covenants, then, were but a preparation for that saving work of God through Christ which the Bible calls the new covenant. Or, to put it another way, the new covenant fully develops the features consistently displayed in the former covenants. Like the former covenants, the new covenant originates in the sovereign grace of God (Rom 3:24; 5:15-21; Eph 2:8-9; Titus 3:5). Through it God makes unworthy sinners his people and promises to be their God (Heb 8:8,10; 1 Peter 2:9-10). But if people are to enjoy that life-giving relationship with God which is the covenant’s central blessing, they must respond to God’s grace in faith and obedience (Gal 3:14; Heb 5:9; 1 Peter 1:2). Also, since faith involves perseverance, they must continue in the covenant (Col 1:23; cf. Heb 8:9; see PERSEVERANCE). Yet there are great differences between the old and new covenants. All former covenants were imperfect – not in the sense of being wrong, but in the sense of being incomplete. They belonged to the era before Christ and therefore could not in themselves bring salvation. Only the atoning death of Christ can do that (see ATONEMENT). Therefore, until Christ came, there was always the need for a new covenant, one that carried with it better promises (Heb 8:6-9,13; 10:9-10). The new covenant, in contrast to the old, is not concerned with a particular nation, nor is it concerned with any nation as a whole. Rather it is concerned with individuals, regardless of their nation. It does not demand obedience to a set of laws, but puts God’s laws in people’s hearts.
It does not need priests to mediate between God and individuals, for all believers know God personally and have direct fellowship with him. There is no remembrance of sins through repetitive sacrifices, for all sins are at once removed and are gone for ever (Heb 8:10-12). (For further details of the contrast between the old and new covenants see HEBREWS, LETTER TO THE.) Jesus Christ’s atoning death is the basis of the new covenant. He is the mediator through whom God makes the covenant, and he is the sacrifice whose blood seals the covenant (1 Cor 11:25; Heb 9:15; 12:24). Through that same blood, sin is forgiven completely, so that God’s people enter the covenant not with mere ceremonial cleansing, but with actual cleansing (Matt 26:28; cf. Heb 9:19-22). This is an eternal covenant, for there will never be another to follow it. Covenant grace is fully revealed, and the blessings that flow from it are eternal (Heb 10:16-18; 13:20).
COVET
The sin of covetousness covers a wide range of unlawful and self-centred desires. Selfish ambition, sexual lusts and common greed are all forms of covetousness (Deut 5:21; Ps 78:18; Prov 6:25; Matt 5:28; 1 Tim 6:9-10; James 4:2-3; 1 John 2:16). Because covetousness drives people to get what they want, it produces all kinds of immoral and unlawful behaviour, such as stealing, oppression, deceit and violence (Exod 20:17; Josh 7:21; Micah 2:2; 1 Cor 5:9-11). Among the Ten Commandments is one that forbids covetousness. This command differs from some others in that it deals with attitudes, whereas others deal with actions. Sins such as murder, adultery, stealing and lying are outward, but covetousness is inward.
A person may not be guilty of sinful actions that are obvious to all, but still be guilty of the hidden sin of covetousness (Matt 5:21-30). Paul’s realization of this in his own experience helped him see the incurable sinfulness of human nature (Rom 7:7-11; cf. Mark 7:22-23). He saw, in addition, that covetousness is a form of idolatry. Selfish desires may be so strong that the coveted thing takes the place of God in a person’s life (Col 3:5; cf. Ps 10:3). One reason why covetousness is so dangerous is that good living, hard working, highly respected people can be guilty of it, yet not be aware of it. They may even mistake it for a virtue (Matt 19:16-22; Luke 12:15; see also WEALTH).
God, however, puts it in the same group as some of the most horrible sins (Rom 1:29; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Eph 5:3). Christians can resist the temptation to covetousness through exercising sacrificial love. They will then be devoted to God rather than idolatrous, and generous to others rather than selfish (Matt 22:36-39; cf. 6:24,33; Eph 4:28; see also GIVING).
CRAFT WORKERS
Among the crafts workers mentioned in the Bible are metal-workers (Exod 31:3-4; Isa 44:12; 54:16; Jer 10:9; 2 Tim 4:14), carpenters (2 Sam 5:11; Isa 44:13; Mark 6:3), wood-carvers (Exod 31:5; 1 Kings 6:32), stone-workers (2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kings 6:7), jewellers (Exod 28:11; 31:5), potters (Isa 41:25; Jer 18:1- 4), spinners and weavers (Exod 35:25; Job 7:6; Isa 19:9), dyers (Exod 26:1; 2 Chron 2:7; Acts 16:14), tanners (Exod 26:14; Matt 3:4; Acts 9:43) and tent-makers (Gen 4:20; Acts 18:3).
Tools that these craft workers used are also mentioned occasionally (Gen 4:22; 1 Sam 13:20; 1 Kings 6:7; 7:9; 2 Kings 6:5; Isa 41:7; Jer 23:29). People of the same craft, along with their families, usually lived in the same part of a town or village (1 Chron 4:21; Neh 11:35). Their common interests naturally produced a strong social bond. This was well demonstrated on one occasion in Ephesus. When Paul’s preaching resulted in many idol worshippers being converted, the silversmiths saw him as a threat to their livelihood and used their collective power to oppose him vigorously (Acts 19:24-27). See also WORK.
CREATION
A basic Christian belief is that God created all things, and that all three persons of the godhead were involved in the acts of creation. God spoke and, by the power of his creative word, it happened (Gen 1:1- 3; Job 33:4; Ps 33:6,9; 102:25; John 1:1-3; Heb 1:1-2).
The Creator and the universe
God alone is eternal; therefore, before his initial act of creation, nothing existed apart from him. He created all things, visible and invisible. Even spirit beings, though they may have existed before the physical universe, are creatures whom God has made (Gen 1:1-2; Job 38:4-11; Ps 33:6-9; 90:2; Isa 40:26- 28; 42:5; John 1:1-3; Rom 11:36; Col 1:16; Heb 11:3; Rev 4:11). Once God had created matter, he used the materials of the universe to make and develop the features of the universe. He made animals and humans, for example, out of materials he had made earlier (Gen 2:7,19). Having created the universe, God did not then leave it to itself, as if it were like a huge clock that he wound up and left to run automatically. God is still active in the physical universe. He maintains what he creates.
Though he is Lord of creation and distinct from it, he works through it. He is over all things and in all things (Ps 147:8-9; Acts 17:24,28; Eph 4:6; Col 1:17; Heb 1:3; see also PROVIDENCE). The universe exists, above all, for the praise and glory of God. He created it, not as an act of necessity, but as an act of free grace; not because he had to, but because he chose to (Isa 43:7; Acts 17:25; Rom 11:36; Eph 1:11; Col 1:16; Rev 4:11). It shows something of God’s love, power and wisdom (Ps 19:1-4; Jer 10:12; Rom 1:20). God’s ‘rest’ after creation indicated that he was completely satisfied with all his created works. In his grace he gave the physical world to the people he had created and made them caretakers over it. God wanted them to enjoy his creation in fellowship with himself, and in so doing to share in his ‘rest’ (Gen 1:27-28; 2:1-3; Heb 4:3-10).
But the human creatures refused to submit to their divine Creator, and as a result they ruined the relationship both with the Creator and with the physical creation. They brought disaster upon the human race as a whole and this had damaging consequences in the natural world (Gen 3:17-19; Rom 1:20-23; 8:20). Only when the redeemed enters their full salvation at the end of the age will the created world enter its full glory (Rom 8:21-23; Phil 3:21; see NATURE).
Story of creation
The chief purpose of the account of creation in Genesis is to provide an introduction to the story of God’s dealings with the human race. It shows that God created everything out of nothing, and that he brought the universe through various stages of development till it was a fitting dwelling place for human beings (Gen 1:1,5,8,13,19,23,31; 2:4-7). Modern science may at times cause people to think they are almost insignificant in relation to the size and complexity of the universe, but the Bible takes a different view. It is concerned above all with people, and says little about how the physical universe operates (Ps 8:3-9).
God is pleased when men and women want to learn more about the wonders of his creation, but he has appointed that they do so by the hard work of study and investigation (Gen 3:19; Ps 111:2). God does not usually give such information by direct revelation. The Bible is not a textbook on science, nor is it concerned with the sort of information that scientists are concerned with. Its purpose is not to teach scientific theories, but to give a short simple account of the beginning of things, and in language that people of any era or any background can understand. The language of the creation story, like that of the rest of the Bible, is not the technical language of the scientist, but the everyday language of the common people (cf. Gen 1:16; 7:11-12; 40:22). The scientist may speak of the sun as the centre of the solar system, with the earth a minor satellite of the sun, and the moon a minor satellite of the earth.
The Bible, by contrast, speaks of the heavens and the earth from the viewpoint of ordinary observers. To them the earth appears stationary, and the sun ‘rises’ and ‘sets’ as it moves around the earth (1 Chron 16:30; Eccles 1:5; Mal 1:11; Matt 5:45). The sun is the ‘greater light’ and the moon the ‘lesser light’ (Gen 1:16). The pictorial language of the Bible is different from the technical language of science, but the two are not necessarily in conflict. Science may tell us much about God’s creation, though it does so from a viewpoint that is different from the Bible’s. Science can help us understand how nature works, whereas the Bible is concerned with showing that God is the one who makes nature work. From science we may learn how the stars move, how the weather changes, or how plants grow, but from the Bible we learn that God is the one who makes these things happen (Ps 65:9-10; 78:20,26; 104:1- 30; 147:8; Matt 5:45; 6:30). Although science may investigate how the creation developed, the Bible reveals that the development came about through the creative activity of the sovereign God. The ‘laws of nature’ are God’s laws (Gen 1:1,7,11; 1:20,24; Heb 11:3).
CRETE
In Old Testament times the Mediterranean island of Crete was known as Caphtor. It was at one time the homeland of a people who, in the early days of the Old Testament story, sailed east and settled on Canaan’s Mediterranean coast, where they became known as the Philistines (Deut 2:23; 1 Sam 30:14; Jer 47:4; Amos 9:7; see PHILISTIA; CHERETHITES). The New Testament mentions Crete in the account of Paul’s eventful voyage to Rome. While the ship was moving from one Cretan harbour to another, a fierce storm came up and blew the ship out to sea (Acts 27:7-21). Possibly the first people to take the gospel to Crete were Jews who were converted on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:11).
Churches were established in Crete, but they later became troubled by various disorders. A national characteristic of the Cretans was that they readily accepted anything that made life easier and more enjoyable, and this created problems in their churches. The people accepted false teaching very readily (Titus 1:10-16). When Paul visited Crete towards the end of his life, he had to deal with this problem. There were serious disorders in the churches, but Paul was not able to stay long. Therefore, when he moved on to other parts, he left Titus behind to continue the work of guiding and strengthening the churches (Titus 1:5; see TITUS, LETTER TO).
CROSS
Crucifixion was a form of torture and execution used by the Romans, not by the Jews. Yet Jesus knew that in the end this was the way the Jews would have him killed (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32-33). Although the New Testament writers refer to the cruelty and injustice of Jesus’ crucifixion (Acts 2:23; see CRUCIFIXION), their main concern is not with the physical horror of his death but with its theological meaning (1 Cor 1:18; 1 Peter 2:24).
The curse of the cross Israelites of Old Testament times executed their criminals by stoning them. After an execution, they hung the body of the victim on a tree as a sign to all that he was under the curse and judgment of God (Deut 21:22-23). The Jews of Jesus’ day, being under the rule of Rome, had no power to carry out executions themselves, but had to submit requests for execution to the Roman authorities. In the case of Jesus they did not even ask for him to be stoned when they saw it would be easier to have him crucified (Matt 27:22-23). The Jews considered that Jesus’ hanging on the cross had the same meaning as hanging on a tree. They considered, therefore, that he was under the curse of God. Actually, Jesus did bear the curse of God, but he did so on behalf of sinners, not because of any sin he had committed (Acts 5:30; 10:39; Gal 3:10- 13; 1 Peter 2:24).
Because the Jews had a wrong understanding of the curse Jesus bore in his death, his crucifixion was to them a stumbling block. They could not trust in Jesus’ death on the cross as a way of salvation, and therefore they could not be saved (1 Cor 1:23; see CURSE; STUMBLING BLOCK). God’s way of salvation To the writers of the New Testament, Jesus’ death on the cross was the central point in the whole saving activity of God (1 Cor 1:23; 2:2; 15:3-4; see JUSTIFICATION; PROPITIATION). The cross therefore became a symbol for that salvation. The message of the gospel was the message of the cross (1 Cor 1:17- 18; Gal 3:1; 6:12,14; Eph 2:16; Phil 3:18; see GOSPEL; RECONCILIATION). To the early Christians, the expression ‘cross of Christ’, like the expression ‘blood of Christ’, meant the same as ‘death of Christ’ (Rom 5:9-10; Col 1:20,22; see BLOOD).
The cross symbolized death not only for Christ, but also for believers. Paul explained the meaning of the baptism of believers in relation to the cross of Christ. Their union with Christ means that they have, so to speak, died on the cross with Christ, been buried with Christ, and risen with Christ to new life (Rom 6:3-4; Gal 2:20; Col 2:12-14; see BAPTISM). Christians demonstrate the truth of this in their daily lives by living victoriously over the old sinful nature, the flesh (Gal 5:24; 6:14; see FLESH). But death on a cross also meant humiliation. Believers must therefore be prepared for the sort of humiliation Christ suffered (Phil 2:8; Heb 12:2; 13:12-13; see PERSECUTION).
Christian self-denial During his lifetime, Jesus warned people what to expect if they became his disciples. Jesus knew that his life would finish at the cross, and each person who followed him had to be prepared to take up his or her own cross and follow Jesus to a similar end (Matt 16:24-26; cf. John 19:17-18). To bear one’s cross is still a requirement for all those who want to follow Christ. It means they must sacrifice their own interests for the sake of Christ. Christ does not require every disciple to suffer literal crucifixion, but he does require every disciple to be prepared for it, should it be God’s will. If disciples are prepared for that, they will be prepared for the lesser sacrifices and hardships that are involved in following Christ (Matt 10:37-38; Luke 14:27-33; see DISCIPLE).
CROWN
The Bible mentions two main kinds of crowns. One was the crown worn by a king, and as such was a sign of royalty and glory (Ps 21:1-3; Isa 28:5; 62:3; John 19:2-3; Rev 19:11-16). The other was the circle of leaves placed on the head of the winner of a sporting contest, and as such was a sign of victory (1 Cor 9:24-27; 1 Thess 2:19; 2 Tim 2:5). This latter kind of crown is referred to frequently in reference to the final victory of Christians who faithfully persevere amid trials, sufferings and persecution (2 Tim 4:8; James 1:12; 1 Peter 5:4; Rev 2:10; 3:11; see also REWARD).
CRUCIFIXION
It is not certain where or when the practice of crucifixion originated, but it had been used as a method of execution long before the time of the Roman Empire. The Romans used it mainly against those accused of anti-government rebellion (Luke 23:18-19). When the Jews wanted to get rid of Jesus, they knew that if they accused him to the Roman governor of treason, they could call for his crucifixion (Luke 23:1-2,20-21). Jesus’ trial, before both the Jewish Council and the Roman governor, ignored many of the normal procedures, and was contrary to all accepted standards of justice (Matt 26:57-68; 27:11-31; see SANHEDRIN; PILATE). Once it became clear that Jesus was to be crucified, procedures followed a well established pattern.
The Bible gives no detailed description of the horrors that made crucifixion such a frightful sight, though it records the crucifixion story at length. This emphasizes the significance of the crucifixion as being central to the mission of Jesus and, indeed, to the entire history of the world (1 Cor 2:1-5; Gal 6:14; 1 Peter 2:24). (For the theological meaning of the crucifixion see CROSS.) Crucifixion was carried out in a public place outside the city (Matt 27:31,33,39; John 19:20; Heb 13:12), though the trial took place inside the city, usually at the governor’s headquarters (Matt 27:27; see PRAETORIUM). The condemned person was first of all flogged (Matt 27:26), and then led off through the city to be crucified (Matt 27:31; Luke 23:27). He even had to carry the heavy piece of wood that formed the horizontal part of the cross on which he was to be crucified (John 19:17).
If he was so weak from the flogging that he collapsed under the load, another person was forced to carry it for him (Matt 27:32). At the place of crucifixion the usual procedure was to nail the victim’s outstretched arms to the crosspiece, and then to lift this on to the vertical piece already fixed in the ground. The feet were then nailed (Luke 24:39; John 20:25). Though lifted up from the ground, the victim was close enough to the ground for people to read the accusation nailed to the cross above his head (John 19:19-20). People could also give him drugged wine to deaden the pain, though when it was offered to Jesus he refused it (Matt 27:34). The soldiers who carried out the crucifixion received the victim’s clothing (John 19:23-24). To prevent any attempted rescue, soldiers remained at the cross till the victim was dead (Matt 27:54). This may have taken several days, so to hasten the death they sometimes broke the victim’s legs (John 19:31). This was not necessary in the case of Jesus. When, after about six hours on the cross, he knew that he had finished the work he had come to do, he triumphantly committed his spirit to God, bowed his head, and died (Mark 15:25,33-34,37; Luke 23:46; John 19:30).
CUBIT
Measurements of length recorded in the Bible were sometimes only approximate. People of Bible times, like people today, commonly estimated lengths and distances by measuring with fingers, arms or paces. The cubit was the distance from the elbow to the finger tip. It was equal to about half a pace, or a quarter of the distance between the finger tips when the arms were outstretched sideways. The cubit became the basic unit for estimating length, depth and height (Gen 7:20; Deut 3:11; 1 Chron 11:23). Where exact measurements were required, such as in the construction of buildings, people used a standard cubit equal to approximately forty-four centimetres or eighteen inches (Exod 26:15-25; 1 Kings 6:2-6). (See also MEASUREMENT.)
CURSE
Cursing in the ancient Hebrew world was not a burst of bad language as it usually is in the world of today. It was a pronouncement of judgment believed to bring the release of powerful forces against the person cursed (Num 22:6; Judg 5:23; Job 31:30; Prov 30:10). For this reason to curse the deaf was as great a sin as to put a stumbling block in the path of the blind. For the deaf, not having heard the curse, could not take protective action by calling for the more powerful ‘blessing’ of Yahweh (Lev 19:14; Ps 109:28).
God’s curse on people or things was more than a pronouncement of devastating judgment; it was a punishment on sin (Gen 3:14; Prov 3:33; Dan 9:11; Matt 25:41; Mark 11:14,20-21; Heb 6:7-8). That is why the judgments upon those who disobey God’s commands are called curses, and the rewards to those who obey his commands are called blessings (Deut 27:11-26; 30:19; Josh 8:33-34; Zech 5:3; see BLESSING). Those who disobey the law fall under God’s curse; but Jesus bore this curse when he himself became a curse in place of the sinner (Gal 3:10,13; see CROSS). The Bible sometimes speaks of people or things that had to be destroyed as being ‘put under the curse’ or ‘devoted’. That is, they were devoted to God for destruction (Deut 7:25-26; Josh 6:17-18; 7:1,11-12; 1 Kings 20:42; Mal 4:6) and could not under any circumstances be spared. This was the sense in which Paul was willing to be cursed (Greek: anathema) in the place of his fellow Jews. He was willing to be cut off from Christ and totally condemned, so that his fellow Jews might be saved from judgment (Rom 9:3). He called for a similar judgment on any person who preached a false gospel (Gal 1:8) or who hated Christ (1 Cor 16:22). On the other hand the saying ‘Jesus be cursed’ became a common saying among the opponents of Christianity during the time of Paul. It seems that in Corinth, some who spoke in strange tongues even used the expression in Christian meetings. Paul referred to this to demonstrate that speaking in tongues was not necessarily speaking by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 12:3).
A ‘woe’ pronounced on people did not have the same sense of absoluteness as a curse. It was, nevertheless, to be taken seriously. It was either a stern warning or an announcement of catastrophe or judgment (Num 21:29; Isa 5:18-22; Ezek 24:9; Matt 11:21-22; Luke 6:24-26; Rev 8:13).
CYPRUS
The island of Cyprus was located in the Mediterranean Sea. In former days it was called Kittim and its people were well known as sea traders (Num 24:24; Isa 23:1,12; Jer 2:10; Ezek 27:6; Dan 11:30). Barnabas, a leading man in the early church, came from Cyprus (Acts 4:36). When the Jews killed Stephen and drove the Christians from Jerusalem, some of those Christians took the gospel to Cyprus (Acts 11:19). Barnabas and Paul further helped the growth of the church in Cyprus by conducting a preaching tour that stretched from one end of the island to the other. A few years later Barnabas and Mark did further work there (Acts 13:2-6; 15:39). Paul sailed past the island on later journeys, but there is no record that he visited the island again (Acts 21:3; 27:4). Under the Roman administration, the capital of Cyprus was Paphos (Acts 13:6-7). The island had a large Jewish population and many synagogues (Acts 13:5-6). The Jews of Cyprus who became Christians had a much broader outlook than the Jews of Jerusalem, and were sympathetic to the expansion of the gospel among the Gentiles (Acts 11:20; 13:46; 21:16).
CYRENE
Cyrene was a Mediterranean port on the north coast of Africa. It was one of the many places in northern Africa where Jewish people settled during the centuries leading up to the New Testament era. As in other places, they built synagogues and carried on the religious traditions of their forefathers (see DISPERSION). Many of the local people, attracted by the higher moral standards of the Jews, joined their synagogues, some as part members, others as full members (see PROSELYTE).
The man named Simon who carried Jesus’ cross on the way to Golgotha was either one of these Gentile God-fearers or a local Cyrenian Jew (Mark 15:21). Jews, and possibly Gentiles, from Cyrene were in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10). Some of these apparently became Christians, for Cyrenian Christians were among those whom the Jews expelled from Jerusalem after they had killed Stephen. Cyrenian Christians were among the first to preach the gospel to the Gentiles, and played an important part in founding the church in Antioch in Syria (Acts 11:19- 20). Among the prophets and teachers who led the Antioch church was a Cyrenian named Lucius (Acts 13:1).
CYRUS
As the king who led Persia to its conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, Cyrus was an important figure in helping to bring God’s purposes for Israel to fulfilment (Isa 45:1). It was Cyrus who gave the captive Jews permission to return to their homeland and rebuild their national life and religion (Ezra 1:1-4). (For details see EZRA; PERSIA.)