ICONIUM
The town of Iconium was situated in the south of the province of Galatia in Asia Minor. Paul established a church in Iconium on his first missionary journey and revisited the town on several occasions (Acts 14:1,21; 16:6; 18:23). Timothy, who accompanied Paul on some of his journeys, was well known in Iconium and was an eye-witness of some of the persecutions Paul suffered there (Acts 14:1-6; 16:1-2; 2 Tim 3:10-11). (For map and other details see GALATIA.)
IDOL, IDOLATRY
God’s law-code given to Israel expresses in writing the timeless truth that Yahweh alone is God; there is no other. No image of any sort should be an object of worship, whether used as a symbol of the true God or as the representative of some other (false) god (Exod 20:4-5; 34:17; Isa 42:8). Since images of human creation can be true representations of God, such images cannot possibly lead to an increased appreciation of God (Isa 40:18; 55:8-9). They dishonour God through hiding his glory, and mislead people through giving them wrong ideas of God (Deut 4:15-18; Rom 1:21-23).
Idolatry in Israel
Abraham, the father of Israel, came from a land of idol worshippers, but he renounced idols when he came to know the one true God (Josh 24:2,15). Some of Abraham’s relatives, however, who did not share Abraham’s faith, continued to have private household gods (Gen 31:19). The penalty that Israelite law laid down for idol worship was death (Exod 22:20; Deut 13:2-5; 17:2- 5). Yet the people of Israel repeatedly fell into idolatry through copying the practices of the people around them (Judg 2:12; 10:6; 17:3-6; Jer 44:15-19). Because they did not know what Yahweh looked like, they copied the forms of the gods of other religions (Exod 32:4; Deut 4:12; 1 Kings 12:28; Hosea 13:2). The form of idolatry that Israel most frequently fell into was Baalism (2 Kings 17:15-16; see BAAL). In addition the people sometimes took objects that had played an important part in God’s dealings with Israel and wrongfully made them into objects of worship (Judg 8:27; 2 Kings 18:4). At different times the kings of Judah carried out reforms in which they destroyed all the idols in the land (2 Chron 31:1; 34:4). But idolatrous tendencies were so deeply rooted in the lives of the people that they were never entirely removed. In the end they were the reason why God destroyed the nation and sent the people into captivity (2 Kings 17:7-18; 21:10-15). The period of captivity broke the people’s association with the idols of Canaan, and when the Jews later returned from captivity, idolatry ceased to be a major problem (Ezek 36:22-29; 37:23; Hosea 2:16-19).
Idolatry in other nations
God’s messengers condemned idolatry not only among Israelites, but also among Gentiles. As people observed the created world they should have recognized that there was a Creator, and responded by offering him thankful worship. Instead they turned away from the Creator and made created things their idols (Rom 1:19-23). God’s prophets mocked these lifeless idols and denounced both those who made them and those who worshipped them (Ps 115:4-8; Isa 2:8; 40:18-20; 41:6-7; 44:9-20; 46:1-2,5-7). The reason for the prophets’ condemnation of idols was not just that idols were lifeless pieces of wood or stone, but that behind the idols were demonic forces. Idols were enemies of God and were disgusting and hateful in his sight (Deut 7:25; 29:17; 32:16-17; Ezek 36:17-18; 1 Cor 8:4; 10:19-20).
Warnings to Christians
When people turn to believe in the true and living God, they automatically turns away from their idols (1 Thess 1:9). Any refusal to turn from their idols shows that they have not really repented (Rev 9:20). A common tendency among those who worship idols is a feeling that they are free to practise all kinds of sins, since a lifeless idol is unable to punish them (Rom 1:23-32; Eph 4:17-19). The selfsatisfaction that comes from performing some act of idol worship produces a moral laziness and a relaxing of control over lustful desires. This is no doubt why the Bible often links idolatry with immorality (1 Cor 5:11; 10:7-8; Gal 5:19-20; Rev 9:20-21; 21:8; 22:15; cf. Num 25:1-2) and because immorality is a form of covetousness, idolatry is linked with covetousness (1 Cor 5:11; Eph 5:3,5). People may give so much attention to what they covet that the coveted thing takes the place of God and so becomes an idol (Col 3:5; see COVET). Idolatry is linked also with wrong beliefs concerning Christ. Jesus Christ, the Son of God who died for sinners, is the true God who gives believers eternal life. The substitutes invented by false teachers are false gods, and therefore believers must keep away from them (1 John 5:20-21).
Food offered to idols
In a society where the worship of idols is widespread, Christians sometimes face the problem of whether to eat food that others have previously offered to idols. This concerns food eaten in feasts at an idolatrous temple and food eaten in meals at home. Some Christians may feel free to eat such food, for they know that the idol is only a piece of wood or stone and that it cannot in any way change the food. Others, having once worshipped idols as if they really had life, feel it would be wrong for them to eat such food. They could easily be led into sin through doing what they believe to be wrong. Christians who feel they have the right to eat idol food should therefore limit their personal freedom, so that they do not risk damaging another believer’s life (1 Cor 8:1-13; 10:23-24,31-33; cf. Acts 15:20,29; Rom 14:13-23). Another consideration is that eating together signifies fellowship. In the Lord’s Supper, those who eat the bread and drink the wine are united together with Christ, spiritually sharing in him. Similarly, those who join in idol feasts are having fellowship with the idol or, worse still, with the evil spirit behind the idol (1 Cor 10:14-22; cf. Exod 32:4-6; Dan 5:1,4).
The refusal of Christians to take part in idol feasts is because of this element of fellowship, not because the food itself is changed. When they buy food at the market or eat at the house of pagan friends, they have no need to ask whether the food has been offered to idols. If the food has no obvious idolatrous associations, they should eat it and be thankful to God for it (1 Cor 10:25-27). If, however, someone tells them the food has been offered to idols, they should not eat, because others might misunderstand and, thinking Christians may join in idol worship, fall into sin (1 Cor 10:28-30). Towards the end of the first century AD, certain false teachers actually encouraged Christians to eat food that they knew had been offered to idols. They claimed this demonstrated the Christian’s freedom from rules and regulations, but in practice it led to immorality (Rev 2:14,20). God promises a special reward to those who overcome such temptations (Rev 2:17,26-28).
IMAGE
This article is concerned solely with the subject of humankind’s status as being created in the image of God. And this image of God is expressed in all human beings alike, regardless of sex or race (Gen 1:27-28: 2:18; see HUMANITY, HUMANKIND). Concerning images in the sense of idols see IDOL, IDOLATRY.
A unified being
Human beings are different from all other animals in that they alone are made in the image of God (Gen 1:26-27). This does not merely mean that certain ‘parts’ of them, such as spiritual, moral or intellectual characteristics, reflect the nature of God. The whole person, exists in God’s image. The eternal God is in some way expressed in human beings, so that they represent God on earth. God has appointed them as the earthly rulers over the created world (Gen 1:27-28). Certainly, one result of creation in God’s image is that people have spiritual, moral and intellectual characteristics that make them different from all other creatures. If they were not in God’s image, they would not, in the biblical sense, be human. Even if they had the same physical appearance as humans, they would still be no more than animals. An animal’s ‘animality’ is something self-contained, so to speak, something entirely within the animal itself. But a human being’s humanity is not self-contained. It is not something that exists independently within a person. It is dependent on God in the sense that its relation with God is what makes it human.
Dignity and responsibility
In creating human beings in his image, God has given them a dignity and status that make their relation to him unique among his creatures (Ps 8:3-8; Matt 10:31; 12:12). At the same time God limits their independence. They are not God; they exist only in the image of God. They cannot exist independently of God any more than the image of the moon on the water can exist independently of the moon. People may try to be independent of God, and will bring disaster upon themselves as a result, but they cannot destroy the image of God. No matter how sinful they may be, they still exist in God’s image (Gen 9:6; 1 Cor 11:7; James 3:9).
The story of Adam and Eve shows something of the dignity and responsibility that God gave them (and all human beings through them) as being in God’s image. As God’s representative they authority over the lower orders of creation (Gen 1:28-30; 2:15,19-20). God places them in a world where they can develop mind and body through making rational choices and exercising creative skills. God wants them to enjoy fully this unique life he has given them, but they must do so in fellowship with him and submission to him. They do not have the unlimited right to do as they please, to be the sole judge of right and wrong (Gen 2:15-17). Since God is unlimited and since people exists in his image, there is a tendency within them to want to be unlimited. But the fact of their being in God’s image means they are not unlimited; they have no absolute independence. They fall into sin when they yield to the temptation to rebel against God and set themselves up as the ones who will decide what is right and what is wrong. They are not satisfied with their unique status as the representative of God; they themselves want to be God (Gen 3:1-7).
The perfect man
In contrast with Adam and Eve, Jesus shows what people in God’s image should really be. Jesus accepted the limitations of humanity, yet found purpose and fulfilment in life, in spite of the temptations. As God’s representative he submitted in complete obedience to his Father, and so demonstrated, as no other person could, what true humanity was (John 8:29; Phil 2:8; Heb 2:14; 4:15). There was yet a higher sense in which Jesus reflected the image of God, a sense that could be true of no ordinary person. Jesus was not merely in the image of God; he was the image of God. As well as being human, he was divine. He was the perfect representation of God, because he was God. He had complete authority over creation, because he was the Creator (John 12:45; 14:9; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:15-16; Heb 1:3). By his life, death and resurrection, Jesus undid the evil consequences of Adam and Eve’s disobedience (Rom 5:12-20). But he has done far more than that. He has become head of a new community.
Adam and Eve were made in the image of God and passed on that character to the human race that is descended from them. In like manner Christ shares his image with all who by faith are united with him (Rom 8:29). Although this image of Christ is something that believers in Christ share now, it is also something that they must be continually working towards in their daily lives. It will reach its fullest expression at the return of Jesus Christ (1 Cor 15:49; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10; 1 John 3:2). While the world is still under the power of sin, people do not enjoy the authority over creation that their status as being in God’s image entitles them to. Only at the final triumph of Jesus Christ will humanity, through Christ, enter its full glory (Heb 2:5-9; Rom 8:19-23). All people may exist in the image of God, but the only ones who will bear God’s image fully are those who by faith become united with Christ. Only Christians will be human as God intended.
IMMANUEL
Meaning ‘God with us’, the name ‘Immanuel’ was given at first to a child born in the time of Ahaz, king of Judah (735-716 BC). The birth and naming of the child was a sign of assurance to the king and his people that God was with them to protect them during an enemy attack (Isa 7:10-16; see AHAZ). The promise given to Ahaz was quoted in the New Testament by Matthew in relation to the birth of Jesus Christ. The virgin Mary also would conceive and give birth to a son named Immanuel, but in this case ‘God with us’ meant much more. In Jesus Christ, God actually came and lived as a man among the inhabitants of earth (Matt 1:18-23; John 1:14). (For fuller discussion see VIRGIN.)
INCARNATION
The word ‘incarnation’ is commonly used to denote the truth that God became a human being in the person of Jesus Christ. The word itself is not found in the Bible, but comes from a Latin word meaning ‘in flesh’. In relation to Jesus it means that, in him, God took a bodily form (John 1:14; 1 Tim 3:16). (For details see JESUS CHRIST, sub-heading ‘God in human form’.)
INCENSE
Incense was a substance produced by grinding and blending certain spices. When burnt it gave off thick white smoke and a strong smell, characteristics that gave incense its ceremonial usefulness. Part of Israel’s religious ritual was to burn incense on the altar inside the tabernacle in a symbolic offering of prayer to God (Exod 30:1; Ps 141:2; Rev 8:3; cf. Mal 1:11). In addition to burning incense at certain ceremonies (e.g. Lev 16:12-13), the priests burnt incense every morning and evening, to symbolize before God the unceasing devotion of his people (Exod 30:7-8; Luke 1:10). Israel’s law allowed only the priests to burn incense (Exod 30:7-9; Num 3:10). This restriction prompted Korah and other Levites to rebel against Moses and Aaron. Moses tested them by telling them to burn incense to see whether God approved.
The outcome was that God destroyed them in a fiery judgment (Num 16:1-11,35). The art of preparing incense was well known in Egypt and Arabia, and the Israelites had apparently learnt such skills from these people. But the formula God gave to Moses was to be used only for the incense of the tabernacle (Exod 30:34-38). One ingredient of the incense, frankincense, was also burnt with the cereal offering, and was placed on the sacred bread that was kept inside the tabernacle (Exod 30:34; Lev 6:15; 24:7). The wise men who visited the baby Jesus presented frankincense as an expression of their homage (Matt 2:11). Spices used in the making of incense came from the gum of certain trees and from various plants and herbs (Song of Songs 4:14). Some of these were grown locally, but many were imported from the east and were an important source of income for ancient traders (Gen 37:25; Song of Songs 3:6; Isa 60:6; Jer 6:20). (For details of the ointments, medicines, cosmetics and perfumes that were made from spices and vegetable oils see OIL; SPICES.)
INHERITANCE
Israelites of Old Testament times considered an inheritance to be more than merely an amount of property received upon the death of one’s parents. The inheritance was tied up with the family’s portion of land originally allotted to it in Canaan (1 Kings 21:3-4; Micah 2:2). It was a gift that came from God (Gen 12:7; Deut 4:37-38; 12:10). The New Testament shows that Christians also have an inheritance. This inheritance is tied up not with material possessions but with the kingdom of God. But like the Old Testament inheritance, it is a gift that comes from God himself (Matt 25:34; James 2:5).
Israel in the Old Testament
When Canaan was divided among Israel’s twelve tribes, each tribal area was known as the inheritance of that tribe (Josh 15:20; 16:8; 18:2). Each tribal area was then divided among the families of that tribe, and each family portion was to remain with that family permanently. If anyone later sold part of the family land, it returned to the possession of the family in the Year of Jubilee (Lev 25:13-17; see JUBILEE). The inheritance passed from one generation to the next through the male descendants, though if there were no sons, it could be shared among the daughters. If the daughters later married, they were to marry within their own tribe and so prevent the inheritance from passing to another tribe (Num 27:1-8; 36:1-13). If there were no descendants at all, the land passed to the nearest living relative (Num 27:9-11). A childless widow could, however, ask the brother of her dead husband to act as a sort of temporary husband to her, so that she might produce a son who would inherit the dead husband’s property and carry on his name (Deut 25:5-10; see WIDOW). Whether concerning land or possessions in general, the eldest son received double the amount of the other sons. This special inheritance was known as the birthright (Gen 49:3; Deut 21:17). The firstborn could lose the birthright either by foolishly selling it or through misconduct (Gen 25:31-34; 1 Chron 5:1- 2; see FIRSTBORN).
The Christian’s inheritance
The New Testament uses the picture of an heir firstly of Christ, and then of the Christian. Christ is the heir of all things (Heb 1:2), and through him believers also become heirs. The blessings of salvation promised to Abraham were fulfilled in Christ, and believers inherit these blessings through him (Gal 3:14,16,29). Through the grace of God they become children of God and receive eternal life (Rom 8:17; 1 Peter 3:7). Although Christians enjoy this inheritance now, they will enjoy it more fully when Christ returns. Their salvation will then be complete. Because of the presence of the Holy Spirit within them, they can look forward to this inheritance with assurance (Eph 1:14,18; Titus 3:7; 1 Peter 1:4; see HOPE). Their expectation of this future inheritance gives them courage and perseverance amid present trials and difficulties (Heb 6:12; 11:13-16,39-40; Rev 21:7; see PERSEVERANCE).
INSPIRATION
According to long-standing Christian usage, the word ‘inspiration’ refers to that direct activity of God’s Spirit upon the writers of the Bible that enabled them to write what God wanted them to write. In the present article the words ‘inspiration’ and ‘inspire’ are used only in this special sense. They do not refer to the sort of inspiration that an inspired musician, poet or painter may at times experience. Although the Bible was written under the inspiration of God, there are many things recorded in the Bible of which God disapproves. The Bible sometimes records the words of people who were wrong in what they said (e.g. the false arguments of Job’s friends or the misleading teachings of the Pharisees), for God reveals his truth by correcting what is false as well as by teaching what is right (Rom 15:4; 1 Cor 10:11; 2 Tim 3:16). It was not the speakers of those words who were inspired, but the writers who recorded them. God inspired the writers to record those things that would make his truth plain and expose human errors.
From God, through human writers
The Greek word translated ‘inspired’ means literally ‘God-breathed’ (2 Tim 3:16). That is, God ‘breathed out’ his truth through human writers, so the words they wrote were the creation of God and bore his authority. The writers spoke from God. They were completely under the control of his Spirit and carried along by him to achieve his goals (2 Peter 1:19-20). This does not mean that God used the writers without their personality or understanding playing any part. They were not impersonal instruments whom God used as a typist uses a typewriter. Rather they wrote intelligently out of circumstances that prompted them to write (e.g. Jer 29:1-9; Micah 2:1-3; John 20:30-31; Gal 1:6-9). They may have gathered their material from historical records, religious books, secular documents, conversations and other sources, but the whole work was under the direction of God. The final article was what God intended it to be (Luke 1:1-4). The writers may not have been aware that their writing was inspired and would one day be part of the Bible. Yet what they wrote was God-directed. It was his message for ordinary people, written in human language, but not corrupted by the sin of the writers. The Bible is not partly divine and partly human; every part of it is divine, yet every part of it is also human. Each book says what God wanted to say, yet says also what its author wanted to say. Jesus and his followers acknowledged the Old Testament writings as God’s Word written by people who were inspired by God’s Spirit.
They considered the divine and human authorship inseparable (Matt 22:43; Acts 1:16; 4:25). Therefore, they could quote the spoken words of God as being the words of the Old Testament writer who recorded them (cf. Isa 29:13 with Matt 15:7-9; cf. Isa 65:1-2 with Rom 10:20), or they could quote the words of the Old Testament writer himself as being the words of God (cf. Ps 104:4 with Heb 1:7; cf. Ps 95:7-8 with Heb 3:7-8). Though the Spirit guided the Bible writers in the words they used, the writers wrote according to their own styles and vocabularies. John’s style is different from Peter’s. Amos’s vocabulary is different from Hosea’s. With each book of the Bible, God chose the particular person whose nature, training, background and temperament were most suited to his purpose at the time. He used a wisdom teacher such as Solomon to write proverbs for Israel’s guidance, and a university-trained person such as Paul to develop and apply Christ’s teaching for the benefit of the early church. There were also many literary forms among the writings of the Bible, but God spoke through them all. Sometimes he used very simple forms such as stories and word-pictures, other times more complex forms that involved strange visions and symbolic figures. Whatever the form, it accurately communicated God’s message.
Choosing the right words
In spite of all the differences in the thinking and expression of the Bible writers, the actual words they wrote were those that God intended them to write. Words express thoughts, but they will express those thoughts correctly only if they are the right words. This is seen in some of the New Testament writers’ quotations from the Old Testament. They give such close attention to the words used that they may even base an explanation or teaching on a particular word in an Old Testament portion (cf. John 10:34-35 with Ps 82:6; cf. Gal 3:16 with Gen 12:7). At the same time it must be remembered that words are important only because of the truth they express. Therefore, the New Testament writers may at times quote Old Testament portions without a word-for-word exactness. They express the meaning without following the wording (cf. Rom 11:8 with Deut 29:4 and Isa 29:10; see also QUOTATIONS).
Authority of the Scriptures
Jesus acknowledged the Old Testament as the authoritative Word of God. It was a law that could not be lessened or cancelled (John 10:34-35). He referred to the Scriptures (‘It is written . . .’; ‘Have you not read . . .’) as an absolute authority against which there could be no argument (Matt 4:4,7,10; 21:13,16; 22:29,31; Luke 16:17). He claimed the same absolute authority for his own words, for he was the living Word of God (Matt 24:35; Mark 8:38; John 1:14,18; 6:63; 7:16-17; 12:48-50). The New Testament writers likewise upheld the absolute authority of the Scriptures (Acts 17:2-3,11; Rom 1:17; 12:19; Gal 3:10,13; 2 Tim 3:15-16; 1 Peter 1:16). To them the Scriptures were the ‘oracles of God’, the living, authoritative voice of God (Rom 3:2; Heb 5:12). What the Scriptures said, God said (cf. Gen 12:3 with Gal 3:8; cf. Exod 9:16 with Rom 9:17). Just as the preaching of the biblical prophets were spoken revelations from God, so the books of the biblical writers were written revelations from God. Of both it was true to say, ‘Thus says the Lord’ (Amos 1:1-3; 3:8,13; Micah 1:1-2; 3:8; Isa 30:8-9; Acts 11:28; 13:1-2; 1 Cor 14:37; 2 Peter 1:19-21; Rev 1:1-3).
During his earthly life, Jesus promised his apostles that after his return to the Father, the Holy Spirit would come to them to remind them of Jesus’ teaching and give them further teaching (John 14:25-26; 16:13-15). They were to pass this teaching on to those who became Christians (Matt 28:19-20). They did this not only through preaching but also through putting Jesus’ teachings, and developments from them, into written form. And they claimed for their preaching and their writings the same authority as the Scriptures (1 Cor 2:13; Gal 1:8; 1 Thess 2:13; 4:2,15; 2 Thess 2:15; 3:14; 1 Peter 1:12; 2 Peter 3:2; Rev 22:18-19). Paul and Peter were the two writers who spoke specifically of the Old Testament writings as being God-given (2 Tim 3:16; 2 Peter 1:21). Yet both of them speak of New Testament writings as having the same authority as the Old Testament. In 1 Timothy 5:18 Paul quoted as ‘Scripture’ a statement whose first part came from Deuteronomy 25:4 and whose second part came from Luke 10:7, showing that he considered Luke’s Gospel to have equal authority with the Old Testament. Likewise Peter, in 2 Peter 3:15-16, grouped the writings of Paul with ‘the other Scriptures’, showing that he considered Paul’s writings to have equal authority with the Old Testament.
Living and active Word
The early church as a whole readily recognized many of the early Christian writings as Scripture, particularly those that came from the apostles or had the apostles’ approval. But above all it was the truth within the books that impressed upon the readers that here indeed was God’s Word speaking to them. As a result a new collection of writings began to take shape, known to us as the New Testament (see CANON). Believers throughout the history of the church have likewise had an awareness that, as they read the Bible, God speaks to them through it (Heb 4:12). The same Spirit who inspired the writers enlightens believers as they read, and they receive the words of the Bible as God’s final authority (1 Cor 2:12-15; 1 John 2:26-27; 5:7,10; see INTERPRETATION).
INTERPRETATION
The Bible is no ordinary book. It is the written Word of God, communicating God’s purposes to the people of the world. But since those purposes are based on God’s values, not the values of the world, only those whose minds are instructed by God’s Spirit can properly understand them. The Spirit of God is the true interpreter of the Word of God (1 Cor 2:10-12).
The work of the Holy Spirit
Just as the Spirit of God inspired the writing of the Scriptures in the first place (2 Tim 3:15-16; see INSPIRATION), so the Spirit helps Christians to interpret and apply those Scriptures (1 Cor 2:13). As they understand the circumstances in which the Holy Spirit inspired the original writings, the same Spirit can apply the meaning of those writings to them today. If Christians want the Scriptures to have a relevant message for them, their first duty is to find out what the Scriptures mean. God has given the Holy Spirit not to make Bible study unnecessary, but to make it meaningful. To help Christians towards a clearer understanding of his Word, God has given to his church teachers, people specially equipped by the Spirit for this task (1 Cor 12:8,28; Eph 4:11-14; see TEACHER). Nevertheless, Christians have a duty to test what their teachers preach or write (1 Cor 14:29; 1 Thess 5:21), and if they are to do this satisfactorily they must know how to interpret the Scriptures.
Background and purpose
Because the world of the Bible was different from the world today, readers should learn whatever they can about the geographical and social features of the Bible lands. In particular they must understand the historical setting of the books of the Bible. They will understand the messages of the Old Testament prophets and the New Testament letter-writers only as they understand the circumstances in which the writers wrote. They will need to know who the writers were, when and where they wrote, and what purpose they had in writing (e.g. Micah 1:1; 2:1-3; Hag 1:1-6; 1 Cor 1:1-2,11; 5:1; 7:1; 1 Thess 3:1-6). Some books clearly announce their subject and purpose (e.g. Nahum; Galatians), but others require readers to work through the material to find its central theme (e.g. Ecclesiastes; Ephesians). They may also have to consider what sources the writer has drawn upon and how he has used them in developing his message (e.g. Luke 1:1-4). As they understand a book’s overall purpose, they will have a better understanding of the stories and teachings within the book (John 20:30-31).
Kind of literature
Among the many forms within the Bible are prose narratives, poems, wisdom sayings, laws, visions, letters, genealogies and debates. Readers must interpret whatever they are reading according to the kind of literature it is. People in Old Testament times recognized the differences between a teacher of the law, a prophet and a wisdom teacher (Jer 18:18) and interpreted their writings accordingly (see LAW; PROPHECY; WISDOM LITERATURE). Unless people are reading the Bible in the original languages (Hebrew in the Old Testament, Greek in the New), whatever they are reading is a translation (see MANUSCRIPTS; SCRIPTURES). The words and expressions that the original writers used have to be understood in the context of their ancient cultures. Like other languages, the languages of the Bible contain idioms, word pictures and symbolism, and readers will misunderstand the writer if they interpret literally what he meant as a symbol or figure of speech. In this respect it is particularly important to understand the features of apocalyptic writing (e.g. parts of Ezekiel, Daniel, Zechariah and Revelation) and the characteristics of Hebrew poetry (e.g. Psalms and many of the prophets). (For details see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE; POETRY.)
Words and their meanings
Although readers must bear in mind such matters as background, purpose and literary form, their main concern is with the words themselves. This does not mean that readers must carry out a word by word study. In any language the unit of meaning will vary, depending on the style of the writer and the kind of writing. In some places much may depend on one or two words (e.g. Gal 3:16), but in others one central idea may be built up over several lines (e.g. Ps 118:1-4). A word’s meaning is decided by the way the writer uses it in the sentence, paragraph or book, not by the way it developed out of other words in the long-distant past. A word may have different meanings in different contexts (e.g. ‘sinner’ in Eccles 2:26; Luke 7:39; Gal 2:15), and it is possible that none of these is directly related to the word’s linguistic origins (or etymology). Also, words change their meanings over the years. The meaning of a word in the Old Testament may be different from its meaning in the New, and different again from its meaning today (e.g. see HOLINESS; PROPHET).
Progressive revelation
The writing of the books of the Bible was spread over more than a thousand years, and throughout that time God was progressively revealing his purposes. He made known his purposes for the human race not in one moment at the beginning of history, but stage by stage as he prepared people for the fuller revelation that came through Jesus Christ (Heb 1:1-2; 1 Peter 1:10-12). There is therefore a basic unity to the Bible; it is one book. Although readers may understand each of the individual Bible books in its own context, they must also understand each book in the context of the Bible as a whole (see BIBLE). It is therefore important to understand where each book of the Bible belongs in the developing purposes of God. This is especially so in the case of Old Testament books. By interpreting a book in relation to its place in God’s ongoing revelation, Christians will avoid two extremes. They will not treat the book as if it is merely an ancient document of historical interest, but neither will they try to ‘christianize’ the book by giving ‘spiritual’ meanings to its details. The Old Testament exists as Scripture in its own right (2 Tim 3:15-16) and Christians should recognize this. But because of their knowledge of the New Testament, they may see added significance in the Old (cf. Lev 16:1-28 with Heb 9:6-14). (For further details see QUOTATIONS; TYPOLOGY.) However, the Christians’ knowledge of the New Testament does not change the meaning of the Old. The Old Testament revelation might have been imperfect, but only in the sense of being incomplete, not in the sense of being incorrect. It was like the framework of a building still under construction. The fuller revelation in Christ does not correct the Old Testament revelation, but develops it and brings it to fulfilment (Heb 10:1; 1 Peter 1:10-12).
Accepting the Bible’s authority
Even when readers allow for variations because of the progressive nature of biblical revelation, they will still meet cases where different statements or ideas appear hard to reconcile (cf. Matt 27:46 with Luke 23:46; cf. John 10:28 with Heb 6:4-6). It is dangerous to ‘adjust’ the meaning of one or the other to force it into some neatly ordered scheme of theological interpretation that people have worked out. In reading the Bible Christians need patience. In some cases answers to problems may come later, as their understanding of the Bible increases; in others they may not come at all. Christians must also respect the authority of the Bible. They must allow the Bible to say what it wants to say, regardless of what they would like it to say. They come to the Bible as those who learn, not as those who want to make it do things for them. Their first duty is not to bring isolated verses together to ‘prove’ their beliefs, but to accept the revelation in the form God gave it and to submit to its teachings. As they allow it to change their thinking and behaviour, they will have a better knowledge of the will of God and a greater likeness to the character of Christ (John 13:17; Rom 12:2; Col 3:10,16-17).
ISAAC
God promised Abraham and Sarah that, in spite of their old age, they would produce a child through whom God would carry on the process of fulfilling his covenant promises. That child was Isaac (Gen 17:19,21). The promises were that God would make Isaac’s descendants into a people for himself, that he would give them Canaan as their homeland, and that through them he would bring blessing to the whole world (Gen 22:15-18).
Isaac and his father
It was entirely contrary to nature that a couple as old as Abraham and Sarah should produce a child, but this proved that it was the work of God (Gen 18:10-14; 21:5). God had made a promise, and Abraham and Sarah had acted on it in faith. Isaac was therefore a ‘child of promise’. He was a living illustration that faith is the way to acceptance with God and enjoyment of his promises (Rom 4:17-22; 9:7-9; Gal 4:21-31). (For the contrast to the ‘child of promise’ see ISHMAEL.) Abraham’s faith was further tested when God told him to sacrifice Isaac (by that time a youth; Gen 22:6), the only person through whom God’s promises to him could be fulfilled. Abraham obeyed, believing that God was able to bring Isaac back from death. In a sense Abraham did receive Isaac back from death, when God provided a lamb as a sacrificial substitute for him (Gen 22:1-2,12-13; Heb 11:17- 19; James 2:21-23). In seeking a wife for Isaac, Abraham insisted that she come not from the Canaanites (who were under God’s judgment) but from his relatives in Paddan-aram. Since Isaac himself was not to leave the land promised to him (Canaan), Abraham sent his most senior servant to find the wife for him (Gen 24:2-6). The woman the servant found was Rebekah. Isaac was forty years old when he married her (Gen 24:58- 67; 25:20).
Isaac and his sons
Isaac and Rebekah’s faith in the promises of God was tested when they remained childless for twenty years. In answer to their prayers, God gave them twin sons, Esau and Jacob. God declared that his covenant people would come through Jacob, though Esau also would father a nation (Gen 25:21-26). When a famine hit Canaan, Isaac proved his faith and his obedience by refusing to flee to Egypt (Gen 26:1-5). God rewarded him with increasing prosperity (Gen 26:12-14). Though on one occasion he lied to protect himself (Gen 26:7), he showed much self-control and tolerance when rival herdsmen were hostile to him (Gen 26:14-22). Esau, the more outgoing of the two sons, was Isaac’s favourite. Isaac determined to pass on the divine blessing to Esau, even though God had said it was to go to Jacob (Gen 27:4). But Rebekah and Jacob tricked Isaac into giving the blessing to Jacob (Gen 27:28-29). Later Isaac passed on the blessing of the Abrahamic covenant to Jacob knowingly and willingly (Gen 28:3-4). Because of the deceit over Isaac’s blessing, Esau tried to kill Jacob. Jacob escaped to Paddan-aram (Gen 27:41; 28:1-2,5). When Jacob returned more than twenty years later, there was a reunion between the two brothers (Gen 31:38; 33:4-5). Some time later Isaac died, and his two sons buried him in the family burial ground at Machpelah (Gen 35:27-29; 49:30-31).
ISHMAEL
Of several men named Ishmael in the Bible, the best known is the son born to Abraham through his Egyptian slave-girl, Hagar. He was born as a result of Abraham and Sarah’s failure of faith, when, feeling that Sarah could not produce the son God had promised them, they arranged for Abraham to produce the son through Hagar (Gen 16:1-3). In New Testament times, Paul saw this as a picture of those who try to achieve salvation through lawkeeping instead of through faith in Jesus Christ. As Ishmael was the child of a slave-girl, so they are the children of slavery. They are in bondage to the law instead of being free people in Christ (Gal 4:21-26). Concerning Ishmael, God promised that he would grow into a fiery independent desert-dweller, and would produce a notable line of descendants (Gen 16:11-12; 17:20). But he was not the son that God had promised to Abraham as the one through whom he would build his covenant people. God’s promises would be fulfilled through Isaac, the son who was later born to Abraham and Sarah (Gen 17:15-19). When conflict arose between Sarah and Hagar, Hagar and Ishmael were forced to leave Abraham’s household and establish their own independent existence (Gen 21:8-21).
In New Testament times, Paul saw the expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael as an illustration that slaves of the law have no place in a family (the church) where people have the freedom of sons and through faith inherit God’s promises (Gal 4:28- 31). Ishmael grew up to be a tough desert-dweller, as God had foretold (Gen 21:20; cf. 16:12). He married an Egyptian (Gen 21:21), and one of his daughters married Isaac’s son, Esau (Gen 28:9). There was a temporary reunion between Isaac and Ishmael at the funeral of their father (Gen 25:7-10). Many of the tribal peoples who grew up in the region around Canaan were descended from Ishmael (Gen 25:12-18). Even today many of the Arab peoples claim descent from him.
ISRAEL
God promised Abraham that he would make from him a nation, that he would give that nation the land of Canaan as a homeland, and that through it blessing would come to people worldwide (Gen 12:1-3; 13:14-17; 15:18-21; 22:17-18). The nation became known as Israel, after Abraham’s grandson (originally named Jacob) whose twelve sons were the fathers of the twelve tribes of Israel (Gen 32:28; 35:22-26; 49:1,28; 1 Chron 1:34; 2:1-2; see JACOB).
Beginnings of Israel’s national life
When circumstances in Egypt were more favourable than in Canaan, Jacob and his family (about seventy people) moved to Egypt to live (18th century BC; Gen 46:26-27). When, after more than four hundred years in Egypt, they had multiplied till they could truly be called a nation, God used Moses to lead them out of Egypt, with the aim of bringing them into Canaan (about 1280 BC; Exod 12:40-41). Three months after leaving Egypt they arrived at Mt Sinai, where they remained for the next year. During that time Moses organized them as a national community, taught them the ways of God and officiated in a covenant ceremony that bound them to God as his people (Exod 19:1-6; 24:3-8; Num 10:11-12; see COVENANT; LAW). In spite of promising to obey God, the people rebelled against him, with the result that he kept them from entering Canaan for forty years. During those years most of the adult population died, and a new generation eventually entered Canaan under the leadership of Joshua (about 1240 BC; Num 14:32- 34; Josh 1:1-5; Heb 3:16-17).
Establishing the nation in Canaan
Israel conquered not only Canaan (i.e. the land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea) but also the land east of Jordan. This combined area was then divided between the twelve tribes, nine and a half tribes settling in Canaan, the other two and a half tribes in the area east of Jordan (Josh 13:7-8). (For the tribal divisions of the land see TRIBES.) God instructed the Israelites to wipe out the Canaanites and remove all trace of their religion, but they failed to do so. As a result the Canaanite people left in the land were a source of trouble to Israel, and the Canaanite gods were the cause of Israel’s falling into idolatry (Judg 2:1-3; see BAAL). When the people of Israel turned away from God, God used enemies to punish them; when they turned back to God and cried to him for mercy, he raised up deliverers (called judges) from among them to overthrow the enemy and lead the people back to himself (Judg 2:11-19). There was little unity in Israel during this period. Each tribe looked after its own affairs without much concern for the others (Judg 21:25). The one leader who brought some measure of unity to Israel was the godly man Samuel. The people asked that Samuel appoint a king to succeed him, believing this would help give the nation stability. Samuel opposed this, pointing out that devotion to God was the source of national stability. When it became clear that the people would not listen to him, he allowed them to have their king (1050 BC; 1 Sam 8:4-9).
The early Israelite kingdom
Israel’s first king, Saul, though a good soldier, was a failure as a national and spiritual leader. He was followed by David, who became probably Israel’s greatest king. David conquered Jerusalem (which till then had been held by the Canaanites), and set about making it the political and religious centre of the nation (1003 BC; 2 Sam 5:1-10). (For the significance of Jerusalem in Israel’s history see JERUSALEM.) David expanded Israelite rule to the Euphrates River in the north, over Ammonite and Moabite territory to the east, over Philistine territory to the west, and to the Red Sea and Egypt in the south (2 Sam 8:1-4,11-14).
Solomon, who succeeded his father David as king, devoted himself to developing and beautifying Jerusalem, so that his national capital might be a place of incomparable splendour. But he was a hard ruler. The people hated his forced labour programs and heavy taxation schemes, and as soon as he died they took the opportunity to revolt. Only the king’s tribe, Judah, along with neighbouring Benjamin, supported the Davidic king. The remaining tribes broke away, appointing as their king Jeroboam, a leader from the tribe of Ephraim (930 BC; 1 Kings 11:11-13,29-32; 12:20). From that time on, the nation was divided into two, a northern kingdom and a southern kingdom. The northern kingdom, which consisted of ten tribes, still called itself Israel (though it was sometimes called Ephraim, after its leading tribe). The southern kingdom, which consisted of two tribes, was called Judah. (For details of the southern kingdom and its history see JUDAH, TRIBE AND KINGDOM.)
Northern part of a divided kingdom
Jeroboam made Shechem the capital of the northern kingdom (1 Kings 12:25). (The capital was later moved to Tirzah, and later still to Samaria, where it remained till the end of the kingdom; 1 Kings 15:21,33; 16:23-24.) Jerusalem remained the capital of the southern kingdom, and kings of the Davidic dynasty continued to rule there (1 Kings 12:17,21; 22:41-42). Jerusalem was also the location of the temple. Therefore, to prevent northerners from defecting to the south, Jeroboam built shrines at Dan on his northern border and Bethel on his southern border, complete with his own order of priests, sacrifices and festivals. Jeroboam’s religious system combined Canaanite and Israelite practices, and led to a moral and religious decay that would result in God’s destruction of the kingdom (1 Kings 12:26-33; 16:19,26; 2 Kings 17:7-18). Soon Israel was troubled by a kind of false religion that was even more serious than that which Jeroboam had introduced. This was the Baalism of Phoenicia that the Israelite king Ahab and his Phoenician wife Jezebel tried to establish as Israel’s official religion (1 Kings 16:29-34).
To resist Jezebel’s Baalism, God raised up the prophets Elijah and Elisha. They helped to preserve the faithful minority of believers in Israel and so prevent Israel’s ancient religion from being lost for ever. Part of Israel’s punishment for its acceptance of Jezebel’s Baalism was a series of destructive invasions by Syria that lasted many years (1 Kings 19:13-18; 2 Kings 8:12-13; 10:32-33; 13:3-8). (For a map showing Israel’s position in relation to the major nations that became involved in its history see BIBLE.) When the Syrian oppression of Israel was finally removed, Israel enjoyed a time of renewed growth and prosperity, particularly during the reign of Jeroboam II (793-752 BC; 2 Kings 14:23-25). The prosperity, however, resulted in much corruption, injustice, immorality and religious decay, and soon the prophets Amos and Hosea were announcing God’s judgment on the sinful nation (Amos 7:8-11). The judgment came when Assyria conquered the northern kingdom and took the people into captivity in Assyria (722 BC; 2 Kings 17:5-6). This marked the end of the northern kingdom.
Nineteen Israelite kings had ruled over it, and these had been spread over nine dynasties. The Assyrians then resettled people from other territories of their empire into parts of the former northern kingdom, mainly the central region around Samaria. These people intermarried with Israelites left in the land, and combined their own religions with Israel’s. From these people there developed a race, of mixed blood and mixed religion, known as the Samaritans. True Israelites despised them (2 Kings 17:24-33; see SAMARIA). Meanwhile the kingdom of Judah to the south struggled to maintain its independence. Eventually it was conquered by Babylon, who, in a series of attacks, took the Judeans captive to Babylon and destroyed Jerusalem (587 BC; 2 Kings 25:1-12). Throughout the years of captivity in Babylon, the southerners retained their national and religious identity. Not so the northerners, who became widely scattered and were absorbed into the peoples among whom they lived.
The rebuilt nation
In 539 BC Persia conquered Babylon and allowed all captive peoples to return to their homelands. Many of the Judeans returned to Palestine and, under the leadership of the governor Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua, began to rebuild the nation. The reconstructed temple was completed in 516 BC (Ezra 1:1-4; 5:1-2; 6:14-15). Although back in their land, the people were still under the rule of Persia. They were at least united, for there was no longer a distinction between northerners and southerners.
The restored nation could be called either Israel or Judah, because it was the true continuation of the ancient Israel, even though it consisted mainly of Judeans. Israelites therefore became known as Jews, the name ‘Jew’ being short for ‘Judean’ (see JEW). After the early enthusiasm, spiritual life in the new nation soon declined. In an attempt to improve matters, the priest and teacher Ezra came to Jerusalem in 458 BC, with authority from the Persian government to reform the people (Ezra 7:1-10). But his efforts brought little success, and only when Nehemiah joined him thirteen years later was there any great change in Jerusalem. The Persian rulers had appointed Nehemiah governor of Jerusalem, and he and Ezra worked together to bring about widesweeping reforms (Neh 2:1-8; 8:1-4,8; 9:1-3). Over the years that followed, a number of developments arose out of these reforms. They included the construction of buildings for worship and teaching called synagogues, the growth of a class of teachers of the law called scribes, and the establishment of a council to judge Jewish affairs called the Sanhedrin (see SYNAGOGUE; SCRIBES; SANHEDRIN).
The Greek and Roman periods
When the Greek conqueror Alexander the Great spread his power across the region (334-331 BC), Israel fell under Greek rule. Alexander’s empire soon split into several sectors, Israel at first falling within the Egyptian sector, but later within the Syrian sector (198 BC). By this time Greek customs and ideas were having some influence on the Jewish way of life, and this created divisions among the Jews. Some opposed this Greek influence and others encouraged it. Here we see the beginnings of the parties of the Pharisees and the Sadducees (see PHARISEES; SADDUCEES).
When fighting broke out in Jerusalem between these two Jewish factions, the Greek ruler in Syria showed his hatred of the Jews by trying to destroy them and their religion. The Jews fought back fiercely, regaining control of their temple in 165 BC, and eventually regaining full political independence in 143 BC. After 460 years under Babylon, Persia, and then Greece, the Jews were free again. (For further details of the events outlined above see GREECE.) Though free from foreign domination, the Jews continued to fight among themselves. This so weakened the nation that it was unable to withstand the spreading power of Rome (who had succeeded Greece as the leading power of the region). In 63 BC Jewish independence came to an end. The politics of the region continued in confusion till 37 BC, when Herod, a part-Jew, was appointed ‘king’ over the Jews, though still under the overall control of Rome. Some time after Herod’s death, Judea came under direct Roman rule, with Roman governors in charge (AD 6). (For details see HEROD.) Among the Jews were anti-Roman extremists called Zealots, who were constantly looking for opportunities to fight against Rome. Finally, about AD 66, open rebellion broke out. The result was conquest by Rome and the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, thereby bringing Israel’s national life to an end. (For details see ROME; ZEALOT.) Not until recent times (AD 1948) did Israel become a nation again.
Spiritual Israel
Although all the physical descendants of Jacob were God’s chosen people Israel in the physical and national sense, not all were God’s people in the inward and spiritual sense. Only those who turned from their sins and trusted in the saving mercy of God could be called the true Israel, the true people of God. This was so in Old Testament as well as New Testament times (Isa 1:4-20; Rom 2:28-29; 9:6-8; Gal 6:16). Yet even these, the true people of God, did not experience the full blessings that God intended for his people. God’s purposes for Israel found their perfect fulfilment in the Messiah, Jesus (see MESSIAH). The nation Israel was Abraham’s natural offspring (John 8:37); the few faithful believers in Israel (often called the remnant) were his spiritual offspring (Rom 9:6-7; Gal 3:29); but the Messiah himself was the perfect offspring, the one in whom all God’s purposes for Israel were fulfilled and through whom people of all nations are blessed (Gal 3:16; cf. Gen 12:1-3). When people through faith are ‘in Christ’, they become Abraham’s offspring through Christ and inherit God’s promises through Christ. This is so regardless of their nationality (Gal 3:14,29; Eph 3:6). The true people of God includes all who have faith in him, not just those who belong to Israel. Like Abraham they are saved by faith, and therefore are spiritually his true descendants (Rom 4:11-12,16; Gal 3:26-29; 4:26-28; 6:16; 1 Peter 1:1; 2:9).
ISSACHAR
Nothing is known of the man Issachar apart from the fact that he was the fifth son that Leah bore to Jacob (Gen 30:17-18). The tribe descended from him inherited land that covered the important Plain of Esdraelon and Valley of Jezreel in northern Israel (see PALESTINE; JEZREEL). This territory lay between Mt Tabor to the north and Mt Gilboa to the south (Josh 19:17-23). Important trade routes ran through Issachar’s territory, connecting inland and coastal towns. The commercial activity that resulted, along with the good farming country of the area, brought much prosperity to Issachar. But its desire for prosperity meant that, except for one notable victory, it had to submit to the Canaanite people. Being equipped with an army of chariots, the Canaanites were well able to control the relatively flat country (Gen 49:14-15; Deut 33:18-19; Judg 4:12-15; 5:15). At least two national leaders of Israel came from Issachar (Judg 10:1; 1 Kings 15:27).
ITHAMAR
When Aaron and his four sons established Israel’s priestly order, Aaron became the high priest and his sons were the priests who assisted him. Ithamar was the youngest of the four sons (Exod 28:1-4). After the death of the two older sons, Eleazar and Ithamar received additional responsibilities. Eleazar, the senior of the two, had overall control of the Levites (Num 3:32), but Ithamar had specific responsibility for two of the three family divisions within the Levites (Num 4:28,33). He had earlier supervised the building of the tabernacle (Exod 38:21), and now he was the chief overseer of its maintenance (Num 4:24-33).
ITUREA
The region of Iturea lay between the Sea of Galilee and Damascus, and in early New Testament times was governed by Herod Philip, a son of Herod the Great (Luke 3:1; see HEROD). It was on the edge of the tableland region formerly called Bashan (Num 21:33; Ps 22:12; see BASHAN).