LABAN
After the father of Abraham migrated to the region of Paddan-aram in northern Mesopotamia, some of the family settled there. Others, such as Abraham and Lot, moved south into Canaan (Gen 11:31-12:5). Laban became a prominent member of one of the families that remained in Paddan-aram. He shared with his father in giving permission for his sister, Rebekah, to marry Abraham’s son, Isaac (Gen 24:15,29,50- 51). Later he gave his own daughters, Leah and Rachel, to be wives of Isaac’s son, Jacob (Gen 28:2; 29:15-30). Laban’s deceit of Jacob in the marriage arrangements began a long contest of trickery between the two, as each tried to outdo the other. (For details see JACOB.)
LACHISH
The important town of Lachish was located in the mountain pass that led from Hebron down to the Mediterranean coast. It was conquered by Israel in the time of Joshua (Josh 10:3-5,32) and later became an important military outpost for the defence of Jerusalem and other highland towns (2 Kings 18:13-17; 2 Chron 11:5,9; Jer 34:7; Micah 1:13; see PALESTINE). It was resettled after the Jews’ return from captivity, but never regained its previous importance (Neh 11:25,30).
LAKE OF FIRE
See HELL.
LAMB
Most of the Old Testament references to lambs are related to sacrificial rituals. (For references to matters other than sacrifice see SHEEP.) Abel’s offering was probably a lamb (Gen 4:4), Abraham considered a lamb to be the natural animal for a burnt offering (Gen 22:7-8), and the Israelites in Egypt offered sacrificial lambs at the time of the original Passover (Exod 12:3-8; see PASSOVER). In the religious system that God gave Israel, lambs were one of the animals most commonly used for sacrifice (Lev 3:1,7; 4:32; 9:3; 12:6; 14:10; 23:12; Num 28:4,11; 29:13; Ezra 6:17; 7:17; Ezek 46:4-15; see BLOOD; SACRIFICE). A lamb offered in sacrifice had to be without defects, symbolizing its fitness to be the guiltless substitute for the guilty offerer (Exod 12:5-6; Lev 4:32; 9:3).
Although the shedding of a sacrificial animal’s blood was necessary, no animal sacrifice in itself could take away a person’s sin (Heb 9:22; 10:4). Jesus Christ, the Lamb of God, achieves what all the animal sacrifices could not achieve. He willingly gave his life as a sacrifice for guilty sinners, and through his sacrifice takes away their sin (John 1:29; Acts 8:32; 1 Peter 1:18-19). In the visions of the book of Revelation, the Lamb again symbolizes Jesus Christ. Having died for sin, he has now overcome death and is the Lord of life and salvation (Rev 5:6,9,12; 7:14; 12:11). He is the conqueror of Satan, the Saviour of his people, the judge of the world, the King of kings, and the object of heaven’s worship (Rev 7:17; 14:1,10; 17:14; 19:7; 21:23; 22:1,3).
LAMP
Various kinds of lamps are mentioned in the Bible, some for indoor use (2 Kings 4:10; Dan 5:5; Matt 5:15; Acts 20:8), others for outdoor use (Ps 119:105; Matt 25:1; John 18:3). They were made of a variety of materials (clay, metal or wood) and were of different shapes and designs, but they all functioned in much the same way. Basically, a lamp consisted of a bowl to hold the fuel (oil) and a cloth wick that soaked up the oil for the flame (Exod 27:20; Matt 25:3-4). A lamp was so important for everyday living in the ancient world that it was almost a symbol of life itself (2 Sam 21:17; Job 29:2-3; Prov 13:9; Rev 18:23). The Word of God and the servants of God are at times likened to lamps, since they provide light from God in a world of darkness (Ps 119:105; Matt 5:16). The lamp was therefore a fitting symbol of the witness that the people of God bear to him (Luke 12:35; John 5:33,35; cf. 1:7). Lampstands In the tabernacle built by Moses, seven lamps were fitted to a single lampstand to provide light for the Holy Place. God gave Moses no dimensions for the lampstand, but it weighed about thirty-five kilograms, was made of one piece of gold and was richly ornamented.
The common people provided the oil for the lamps, and the priests checked the lamps each morning and evening to ensure they were kept burning (Exod 25:31-40; 27:20-21). In Solomon’s temple there were ten lampstands, five against each of the two side walls (1 Kings 7:49). Many years later, when the Jews had returned from captivity in Babylon and were rebuilding their temple, the prophet Zechariah had a vision of a seven-branched temple lampstand. Two olive trees, one each side of the lampstand, fed the lamps miraculously with a continuous supply of oil. This symbolized the continuous supply of God’s supernatural power, which would ensure the satisfactory completion of the temple (Zech 4:1-14). It probably also symbolized the witness of God’s people (Rev 11:3-4). In the book of Revelation, lampstands feature in one of the visions that John saw. In this vision, seven lampstands represented seven churches, to which God directed John to write seven letters (Rev 1:11-13,20). Each church was to be a witness to Jesus Christ, but if it failed in its task and ignored God’s warnings, God could ‘remove the lampstand’ by bringing the church to an end (Rev 2:5).
LAODICEA
Like Colossae and Hierapolis, Laodicea was situated in a fertile valley east of Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia. It was an important educational, commercial and administrative centre. Although Paul was the first to take the gospel to Asia, there is no indication that he visited the town during his missionary travels recorded in Acts (Col 2:1). The church was probably founded at the time of Paul’s lengthy stay in Ephesus during his third missionary journey, when the zealous Ephesian converts took the gospel throughout the surrounding countryside (Acts 19:8-10; Col 4:12-13). (For map and other details see ASIA.) When Paul wrote to the church in Colossae, he wrote also to the church in Laodicea. He wanted the two churches to exchange their letters, so that both churches could read both letters (Col 4:16).
This letter to the Laodiceans was never collected as part of the sacred writings. Another letter to the Laodicean church has been preserved, this one written towards the end of the first century (Rev 3:14). The letter is Christ’s message to the church and is largely one of criticism. The citizens of Laodicea in general were prosperous and self-satisfied, and this spirit of self-satisfaction carried over into the church. The Laodiceans prided themselves that they had all they needed, and even believed that their material prosperity had resulted from their spiritual goodness. Because of their reliance on material things they could not exercise true faith in God, and their lives could not demonstrate that Christ brings complete satisfaction. Jesus condemned their comfortable spiritual pride and tried to make them see themselves as he saw them – poor, blind and naked. They had to realize that Christ alone could produce truly spiritual qualities in their lives, and he could do this only when they turned from their sin and humbly sought his help (Rev 3:15-22).
LAST DAYS
See ESCHATOLOGY.
LAW
The word ‘law’ is used in many ways in the Bible. It may be used of commandments or instructions in general, whether given by God, civil administrators, teachers or parents (Gen 26:5; Exod 18:20; Prov 3:1; 6:20; see also GOVERNMENT). Frequently it is used of the written Word of God (Ps 119:18-20,57-61), sometimes applying to the Old Testament as a whole and sometimes to part of the Old Testament, such as the five books of Moses (Matt 5:17; Luke 24:44; John 1:45; 15:25; see PENTATEUCH). Occasionally it means a principle of operation (Rom 7:21,23; 8:2).
The most common usage of the term, however, concerns the law of God given to Israel through Moses at Mt Sinai (Exod 24:12; Deut 4:44; Ezra 7:6; John 1:17; Gal 3:17,19). This meaning of ‘law’ is the chief concern of the present article.
God’s covenant with Israel
In his grace God made a covenant with Abraham to make his descendants into a great nation and to give them Canaan as their national homeland (Gen 17:1-8). Over the next four hundred years God directed the affairs of Abraham’s descendants so that their numbers increased and they became a distinct people. They were then ready to be formally established as a nation and to receive the land God had promised them. At Mt Sinai God confirmed the covenant made previously with Abraham, this time making it with Abraham’s descendants, the nation Israel (Exod 24:7-8; see COVENANT). God had chosen Israel to be his people, saved them from slavery in Egypt, and taken them into a close relationship with himself, all in fulfilment of his covenant promise made to Abraham. Everything arose out of the sovereign grace of God (Exod 2:24; 3:16; 6:6-8). But if the people were to enjoy the blessings of that covenant, they had to respond to God’s grace in faithful obedience. The people understood this and promised to be obedient to all God’s commands (Exod 24:7-8). The law that God gave to the people of Israel at Sinai laid down his requirements for them. Through obedience to that law the people would enjoy the life God intended for them in the covenant relationship (Lev 18:5; cf. Rom 7:10; 10:5; Gal 3:12). The ten commandments were the principles by which the nation was to live, and formed the basis on which all Israel’s other laws were built (Exod 20:1-17).
Characteristics of Israelite law
No part of the lives of the Israelites was outside the demands of the covenant. The law applied to the whole of their lives and made no distinction between moral, religious and civil laws. Laws may have been in the form of absolute demands that allowed no exceptions (e.g. ‘You shall not steal’; Exod 20:15), or in the form of guidelines concerning what to do when various situations arose (e.g. ‘If a person borrows anything and it is hurt or dies . . .’; Exod 22:14), but the two kinds were equally binding. Israel’s law-code was suited to the customs of the time and was designed to administer justice within the established culture. Unlike some ancient law-codes, it did not favour the upper classes, but guaranteed a fair hearing for all. It protected the rights of people who were disadvantaged or defenceless, such as orphans, widows, foreigners, slaves and the poor (Exod 22:22; 23:6,9,12). The penalties it laid down were not brutal or excessive, as in some nations, but were always in proportion to the crime committed (Exod 21:23-24).
Jesus’ attitude to the law
The covenant made with Israel at Sinai and the law that belonged to that covenant were not intended to be permanent. They were part of the preparation for the coming of Jesus Christ, through whom God would make a new and eternal covenant (Gal 3:19,24; Heb 9:15). Jesus was born under the law (Gal 4:4) and was brought up according to the law (Luke 2:21-24,42). He obeyed the law (Matt 17:27; John 2:13) and he commanded others to obey the law (Matt 8:4; 23:1- 3,23). Jesus did not oppose the law, though he certainly did oppose the false interpretations of the law that the Jewish leaders of his time taught. He upheld and fulfilled the law by demonstrating its true meaning (Matt 5:17-19,21,27,31,33,38,43). Frequently Jesus pointed out that the law was good and holy and that God gave it for people’s benefit (Matt 22:36-40; Luke 10:25-28; cf. Rom 7:12,14). By contrast the Jewish leaders used the law to oppress people, adding their own traditions and forcing people to obey them. In so doing they forgot, or even opposed, the purpose for which God gave the law (Matt 23:4; Mark 7:1-9; see TRADITION).
Jesus knew that the law, as a set of regulations, was part of a system that was about to pass away (Matt 9:16-17; cf. Heb 8:13). His death and resurrection would mark the end of the old covenant and the beginning of the new (Heb 9:15). Under the new covenant people still have to respond to God’s covenant grace with obedience, but the expression of that obedience has changed. Instead of being bound by a set of rules, they have inner spiritual power to do God’s will. Instead of having to offer sacrifices repeatedly, they have their sins taken away once and for all. Instead of having to approach God through priests, they have direct fellowship with God (Jer 31:31-34; Heb 8:8-13; 10:1-4,16-18).
Salvation apart from the law
People have never received forgiveness of sins through keeping the law. Under the old covenant, as under the new, they were saved only through faith in the sovereign God who, in his grace, forgave them and accepted them. Abraham, David and Paul lived respectively before, during and after the period when the old covenant and its law-code operated in Israel, but all three alike were saved by faith (Gen 15:6; Rom 3:28; 4:1-16,22; Gal 3:17-18; Eph 2:8; 1 Tim 1:14-16). Salvation depended upon God’s promise, not upon human effort. It was a gracious gift received by faith, not a reward for keeping the law (Gal 3:18,21-22; see PROMISE). Contrary to popular Jewish opinion, the law was not given as a means of salvation (Rom 9:31-32). It was given to show the standard of behaviour God required from his covenant people. As a set of official regulations, it was given solely to the nation Israel and was in force for the period from Moses to Christ. But as an expression of the character and will of God, it operated on principles that are relevant to people of all nations and all eras.
It expressed in a legal code for one nation the principles that are applicable to people in general (Rom 2:12-16; 13:8-10). Through the law given to Israel, God showed the righteous standards that his holiness demanded. At the same time the law showed the extent of people’s sinfulness, for their behaviour repeatedly fell short of the law’s standards. The law therefore showed up human sin; but when sinners acknowledged their sin and turned in faith to God, God in his grace forgave them (Rom 3:19-20,31; 5:20; 7:7; Gal 3:11,19). (Concerning the rituals of the law for the cleansing of sin see SACRIFICE.) Those who broke the law were under the curse and condemnation of the law (Deut 27:26; Gal 3:10). Jesus Christ, however, lived a perfect life according to the law, and then died to bear the law’s curse. By his death he broke its power to condemn those who take refuge in him. Believers in Jesus are freed from the law’s curse.
They have their sins forgiven and are put right with God (Rom 7:6; 8:1-3; 10:4; Gal 3:13; Eph 2:15; Col 2:14). Jesus Christ is the true fulfilment of the law. The law prepared the way for him and pointed to him. Before his coming, the people of Israel, being under the law, were like children under the control of a guardian. With his coming, the law had fulfilled its purpose; the guardian was no longer necessary. Believers in Jesus are not children under a guardian, but full-grown mature children of God (Gal 3:23-26; 4:4-5; cf. Rom 10:4; see ADOPTION).
Christian life apart from the law
It was some time before Jewish Christians in the early church understood clearly that the law was no longer binding upon them. They still went to the temple at the set hours of prayer and possibly kept the Jewish festivals (Acts 2:1,46; 3:1). Stephen seems to have been the first Christian to see clearly that Christianity was not part of the Jewish system and was not bound by the Jewish law (Acts 6:13-14). Then Peter had a vision through which he learnt that Jewish food laws no longer applied. He was harshly criticized by certain Jews in the Jerusalem church when they found he had been eating freely with the Gentiles (Acts 10:15; 11:2-3).
These Jews later tried to force Gentile converts to keep the law of Moses (Acts 15:1), and argued so cleverly that Peter tended to follow them, until Paul corrected him (Gal 2:11-16). When some of the leading Christians met at Jerusalem to discuss the matter, they agreed that Gentiles were not to be put under the law of Moses (Acts 15:19). It was now becoming clear, and Paul’s teaching soon made it very clear, that there was no difference between Jews and Gentiles concerning requirements for salvation and Christian living. People were saved by faith alone, not by the law, and they lived their Christian lives by faith alone, not by the law (Rom 3:21-31; Gal 3:28). When he met opposition to his teaching, Paul pointed out the impossibility of being saved through keeping the law (Rom 9:30-32; Gal 2:16; 5:4; Phil 3:9). An equal impossibility was to grow in maturity and holiness through keeping the law, or even selected parts of it (Gal 3:2-5; 5:1-3; James 2:10-11).
The actions of Paul in occasionally observing Jewish laws were not for the purpose of pursuing personal holiness. They were for the purpose of gaining him acceptance among Jewish opponents whom he wanted to win for Christ. Such actions were purely voluntary on Paul’s part (1 Cor 9:19-23; cf. Acts 15:19-21; 16:3; 21:20-26). If people tried to force Paul to keep the law, he would not yield to them under any circumstances (Gal 2:3-5). Paul explained the uselessness of trying to grow in holiness through placing oneself under the law. He pointed out that the more the law forbids a thing, the more the sinful human heart wants to do it (Rom 7:7-11). This does not mean that there is anything wrong with the law. On the contrary, the law is holy, just and good. The fault lies rather with sinful human nature (Rom 7:12-14; see FLESH).
Free but not lawless
Although the law aims at righteous behaviour, people cannot produce righteous behaviour by keeping the law. They can produce it only by claiming true Christian liberty and living by the inner spiritual power of the Holy Spirit (Rom 6:14; 8:3-4; Gal 5:13-23; see FREEDOM; HOLY SPIRIT). But the same Holy Spirit who empowers inwardly has given clear guidelines for behaviour in the written Word. It is not surprising, then, to find that those guidelines contain quotations from the law of Moses to indicate the sort of character and conduct that a holy God requires (Matt 22:36-40; Rom 7:12; 13:8-10; Eph 6:2; Heb 8:10; James 2:8-12). Christians are not under law but under grace. Yet they are not lawless (Rom 6:15). They have been freed from the bondage of the law and are now bound to Christ (Rom 7:1-4). The law of Christ is a law of liberty, one that Christians obey not because they are forced to but because they want to. The controlling force in their lives is not a written code but a living person (1 Cor 9:21; Gal 6:2; James 1:25; 2:12). As Jesus demonstrated his love for the Father by keeping the Father’s commandments, so those who truly love Jesus will keep his commandments (John 14:15,21; 15:10; 1 John 2:3-4,7; 5:3). And in so doing they will practise love, which itself is the fulfilment of the law (John 13:34; Rom 13:8-10; Gal 5:14; 1 John 5:2-3).
LAYING ON OF HANDS
One of the symbolic actions we meet a number of times in the Bible is the laying on of hands. It contained within it a wide range of meanings. In Israel’s sacrificial system, before offering an animal in sacrifice, the offerers laid their hands on the animal’s head, indicating that the animal was their representative in bearing their sins (Lev 1:4; 4:1-4). When Israel’s tribal leaders, acting on behalf of the whole nation, laid their hands on the heads of the Levites, they symbolized that the Levites were their representatives in the service of God (Num 8:10-11). When the church in Antioch sent out Paul and Barnabas as missionaries, the elders of the church laid their hands on them, symbolizing the church’s identification with the two men as their missionary representatives (Acts 13:3). From these examples it seems that important elements in the laying on of hands were those of identification and fellowship. This again appears to be so in those cases where the apostles laid their hands on people who received the Holy Spirit in unusual circumstances (Acts 8:17; 19:6; see BAPTISM WITH THE SPIRIT). Sometimes laying on hands symbolized more than representation or identification. It symbolized appointment to office.
Moses appointed Joshua as his successor by the laying on of hands (Num 27:22- 23). Church leaders appointed missionaries, teachers, elders and deacons to their positions by the ceremonial laying on of hands (Acts 6:6; 13:3; 1 Tim 4:14; 5:22; 2 Tim 1:6). The laying on of hands seems in some cases to have indicated transferal. It may have been a transferal of sin, such as happened when the high priest confessed the sins of Israel over the head of a goat on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:21-22); or it may have been a transferal of good, such as happened when a father passed on his blessing to his children (Gen 48:14-16; cf. Mark 10:16). Jesus and the apostles sometimes laid their hands on those whom they healed, possibly to symbolize the passing on of God’s power and blessing (Mark 6:5; Luke 4:40; 13:13; Acts 9:17). In some cases the laying on of hands may have been a kind of acted prayer (Acts 28:8; cf. James 5:14-15).
LAZARUS
Jesus once told a story of a beggar named Lazarus who lay full of sores at the gate of a rich man. When both men died, Lazarus entered into the joy of God’s heavenly kingdom, but the rich man entered into torment in the place of punishment (Luke 16:19-23). The rich man called for Lazarus to come and bring relief to his suffering, but he learnt to his disappointment that no person could pass from Lazarus’ world to his (Luke 16:24-26). He then asked to send Lazarus back from the world of the dead into the world of the living, to warn the rich man’s brothers of the horrors that lay ahead.
Again he was disappointed. If people are so self-centred that they ignore the plain message of the Bible, even the miracle of someone rising from the dead will not make them change their ways (Luke 16:27-31). Some time later, another man named Lazarus did in fact rise from the dead. This was Lazarus of Bethany, the brother of Mary and Martha (John 11:1-44). But, as Jesus had pointed out, such an event had little effect on those who had consistently resisted God through rejecting the message of the Bible. They still resisted, even when they witnessed the miracle of someone coming from death back to life (John 11:46-50; cf. 5:38-40,45-47). Rather than accept the evidence and humbly submit to God, they tried to destroy the evidence. They planned to kill Lazarus (John 12:9-11). Jesus’ raising of Lazarus started that final burst of hostility which, within one week, brought about Jesus’ death (John 11:53; 12:1,17-19). (For details of Lazarus’ family see MARTHA.)
LEAH
Being the mother of six of Jacob’s twelve sons, Leah had an important role as one of the mothers of the Israelite nation (Gen 30:1-19; 35:23). She was not the wife Jacob chose for himself, and the ill-feeling between her and Jacob’s chosen wife Rachel created many difficulties in Jacob’s household. (For details see JACOB; RACHEL.)
LEAVEN
Among the Hebrews, leaven (or yeast) was very important. It had a practical use in making bread and a symbolic significance in religious rituals. People made leaven by mixing the flour of certain cereals with water, and allowing the mixture to stand till it fermented.
When making leavened bread, they mixed this fermented portion with dough, so that when the dough was baked in the oven the bread would rise (Matt 13:33; 1 Cor 5:6). Leavened bread was light and rounded, unleavened bread heavy and flat. An easier way of making leaven for future batches of bread was to remove a small piece of leavened dough before baking and leaving it stand till it too fermented. The first mention of any ritual significance of leaven was at the time of the Passover when Israel escaped from Egypt. During the week after the Passover escape, the people had no time to bake their bread leavened.
They had to carry their dough and baking pans with them, baking as they went (Exod 12:11,18,34,39). Each year from that time on, the people were to hold a symbolic re-enactment of the Passover along with a week-long Feast of Unleavened Bread. This was to remind them of Israel’s hurried and unceremonious departure from Egypt. They were to leave no leaven in their houses during the week of the feast (Exod 12:14-20; 23:15; Mark 14:1; see PASSOVER). Nothing containing leaven was to be offered on the altar of sacrifice. This was probably because leaven spoiled easily, and there was to be no trace of corruption in the sacrifices (Exod 23:18; 34:25; Lev 2:11; 7:12; 10:12). However, leavened bread, representing the ordinary food of the people, was presented to God at the Feast of Harvest, as an expression of gratitude to him for their daily food (Lev 23:15-20).
Leavened bread offered with the peace offering was not burnt on the altar, but eaten in the meal that followed (Lev 7:11-14). Because it tended to corrupt and because it affected everything it touched, leaven developed a deeper symbolic meaning. Jesus saw the Pharisees, the Sadducees and Herod as evil influences that spread through Israel as leaven spreads through a lump of dough. He warned his disciples to beware of the leaven-like effect of such people. Their hypocrisy, teaching and ungodliness could quickly have a corrupting effect on others (Matt 16:5-12; Mark 8:15; Luke 12:1-3). Just as Israelites cleaned all leaven out of their houses at the time of the Passover, so Christians should clean the leaven of sin and wrong teaching out of their church. If left unchecked, sin will spread yeast-like through the church (1 Cor 5:6-8; Gal 5:7-9). In one of Jesus’ parables, by contrast, leaven is used figuratively in a good sense. Just as leaven spreads through the dough into which it is put, so will Christ’s kingdom spread throughout the world (Matt 13:33).
LEBANON
Lebanon was the name of a mountain range north of Israel between Phoenicia and Syria. It ran parallel to the coast, leaving only a narrow coastal plain for the Phoenician cities, most important of which were Tyre and Sidon (see PHOENICIA). The range gave its name to much of the surrounding territory, and even today the nation that occupies this region is called Lebanon. The Lebanon Range actually consisted of twin parallel ranges.
The western half was referred to simply as Lebanon, and the other half as East Lebanon or Antilebanon (Josh 13:5). The range extended from Mt Hermon, in the border regions of Israel, north to a mountain pass known as ‘the entrance of Hamath’. This was the gap between the twin ranges where Lebanon opened on to the Syrian plain (see HAMATH; HERMON). Lebanon was considered to be the northern boundary of the land promised to Israel (Deut 11:24), but Israel’s conquest under Joshua extended no further than Mt Hermon (Josh 11:16- 17).
The rest of the Lebanon Range remained unconquered (Judg 3:1-3). Only for two brief periods, first during the reign of Solomon and later during the reign of Jeroboam II, did Israel’s territory reach as far as the entrance of Hamath. This was considered the ideal northern border of Israel (2 Chron 8:3-4; 2 Kings 14:25; Amos 6:14). The lower slopes of Lebanon towards the Phoenician plain were very fertile (Ps 72:16; Hosea 14:5- 7). Further up the mountains were the forests of cedar trees for which Lebanon became famous (Ps 104:16; Song of Songs 5:15). These mighty cedars were symbols of majesty and strength (2 Kings 14:9; Ps 92:12-13; Isa 35:2; 60:13), but they could also be symbols of pride and arrogance (Isa 2:12-13; 10:33- 34; Ezek 31:3-14). Cedar from Lebanon was beautiful, enduring and expensive, and people considered that anything made from it was the finest and best (Song of Songs 3:9; Ezek 27:5). Solomon used it extravagantly in the building of his temple, palace and government buildings (1 Kings 5:1-11; 7:1-8).
LENDING
God expected all Israelites to realize that because they existed in a special relation to him, they were not to take advantage of their fellow Israelites. They were not to exploit those in need, but show mercy. They were to help with the necessities of life and treat the needy as equals. They could lend money or goods to the poor, but were not to charge interest (Exod 22:25; Lev 25:35-38; Ps 15:5; Ezek 18:10-13).
Repayment of loans
Though not allowed to take interest from the poor, creditors could, if they wished, ask for temporary possession of some article belonging to a debtor, as a guarantee that the debtor would repay the loan. But they were not to take items essential to a person’s everyday living. For example, they could not take a millstone, as it would leave a person with no way of grinding flour to make food for the family. If they took clothing as a guarantee, they had to return it by evening, so that the person would not have to sleep in the cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:6,10-13).
Creditors could give employment to debtors who wished to repay debts by working for them, but he could not make the debtors their permanent slaves (Lev 25:39- 40). Disorders arose when creditors took advantage of debtors, and debtors took advantage of friends whom they had asked to guarantee them. People could get themselves into trouble by agreeing to be financial guarantors for friends (or strangers) if they did not have enough money to honour their promise. Also, debtors could get themselves so far into debt that guarantors could be ruined. Wise advisers therefore warned guarantors against making rash promises, and even suggested they withdraw their guarantees from dishonest debtors before it was too late (Prov 6:1-5; 11:15; 17:18; 22:26). Although dishonest debtors were a problem, dishonest creditors were a much greater problem. The Bible records cases of ruthless creditors who ignored the laws that Moses had laid down. They seized debtors’ food and clothing (Amos 2:6-8; 5:11; 8:6), farm animals (Job 24:3), and houses and land (Micah 2:2,9). Some even took members of the debtors’ families and made them slaves (2 Kings 4:1; Neh 5:1-5).
Release from debt
These disorders existed in spite of the law which laid down that, at the end of every seven years, Israelites were to forgive debts owed them by fellow Israelites. They were to consider themselves one big family, where no one would be driven into poverty or refused a loan in a time of need, even if the year for releasing debtors was approaching. God promised to reward those who were generous to their fellows (Deut 15:1-11). (Concerning the year for releasing debtors see SABBATICAL YEAR.) As with the law concerning interest on loans, the law concerning release from debt did not apply to cases involving foreign debtors. In those cases normal business procedures applied (Deut 15:3; cf. 23:20).
Lessons for Christians
In all these laws the emphasis was on helping fellow Israelites in need. The background to the laws was the simple farming society of ancient Israel. What the laws condemned was the exploitation of the disadvantaged, not the investment of money to set up or expand business, such as one might find in a more commercially developed society.
Jesus too condemned the exploitation of the needy through taking interest on private loans (Luke 6:34), but he apparently approved of wise investment to earn income (Luke 19:23). He did not, however, approve of investment and trading where people were so concerned with making money that they neglected the needy (Matt 25:42-45; Luke 6:24-25; 16:19-25; cf. James 4:13; 5:1-6). The New Testament encourages Christians to give to those in need (Luke 6:30-31; Rom 12:13), and discourages them from getting into debt (Rom 13:8). The generosity of creditors in helping the needy and forgiving debtors is frequently used in the New Testament to picture truly godly attitudes. It is an illustration of that mercy and grace by which God forgives people their sins and by which they should forgive each other (Matt 6:12; 18:21-35; Luke 7:41- 48). By contrast, the bondage that binds debtors to their creditors is an illustration of that bondage to the old nature from which Christians have been freed by Christ (Rom 8:12-13).
LEPROSY
Among the health laws God gave to Israel through Moses were laws concerning leprosy. However, both biblical scholars and medical scientists have clearly shown that what the Old Testament calls leprosy is not always the disease that we today call leprosy. The word used of leprosy in the Old Testament had a broad meaning and denoted a number of infectious skin diseases, some of which could be cured. It applied even to germ-carrying fungus or mildew on clothes and buildings (Lev 13:1-17,47-59; 14:33-53). The laws given through Moses were concerned not with treating the disease, but with isolating infected people so that others in the community did not become infected. When people saw any abnormality in their skin, even if only a rash, boil or falling out of the hair, they had to report it to the priests. The priests then isolated the infected person till they could ascertain whether the skin condition was a dangerous disease.
If it was not, the person carried out a cleansing ceremony and returned to normal life in the community. But if it was real leprosy the person was excluded from the community entirely (Lev 13:18-46). This exclusion of lepers from normal society resulted in many of them becoming beggars (Lev 13:45- 46; Num 5:2; 2 Kings 7:3,8; Luke 4:27; 17:12). Important people may not have become beggars, but they still had to be isolated from the community (2 Chron 26:21). If people had leprosy or any other infectious skin disease, they were ceremonially unclean and therefore unable to join in the normal religious life of the nation. If they were healed, they had to go to the priest and carry out a cleansing ceremony before they could join in religious activities again (Matt 8:1-4). The cleansing ceremony lasted eight days. Those who were healed, previously ‘dead’ through their disease, symbolized their death by the ritual killing of a bird, symbolized their cleansing by draining the bird’s blood into a bowl of pure water, and symbolized their new life of freedom by releasing a second bird that had been stained with the blood of the first. They were then sprinkled by the priest with the blood of the bird seven times, after which they washed and shaved. They then returned to the community, but not yet to their own dwelling place (Lev 14:1-9). After waiting a further seven days, they offered sacrifices, then resumed normal religious, social and family life (Lev 14:10-32).
LEVI
Levi, the third son of Jacob, had a ruthless zeal in fighting against what he thought was wrong, and this characteristic passed on to his descendants (Gen 29:31-34; 34:25-26; Exod 32:26-28). Jacob announced that because of his son’s violence, the descendants of Levi would be scattered in Israel (Gen 49:5-7); but because of their zeal against idolatry in the time of Moses, God made their scattering honourable. The people of Levi’s tribe became God’s special servants throughout the nation. Although they had no tribal territory of their own, they were given cities in all the tribal territories (Exod 32:28-29; Num 35:2,8; Deut 33:8-10; see LEVITE). One of Jesus’ chosen twelve apostles had the name Levi, though he had an alternative name, Matthew (Matt 9:9; 10:3; Mark 2:14; Luke 6:15; see MATTHEW).
LEVITE
The Levites were the servants, or ministers, in the Israelite religious system. They were descended from the third son of Jacob and formed one of the tribes of Israel (Gen 29:31-34; see LEVI). The Levites were divided into three sections that corresponded to the three families descended from Levi’s three sons, Gershon, Kohath and Merari (Exod 6:16; Num 3:14-20). God appointed them to their privileged religious service as a reward for their zeal against idolatry (Exod 32:26-29; Deut 33:8-10). Although the Levites had general duties in the tabernacle and temple ceremonies, only those of one family within the tribe, the family of Aaron, were priests (Exod 6:16-25; 29:9). Priests alone carried out the blood rituals of the sacrifices, and priests alone entered the inner shrine of the tabernacle (or later the temple) (Num 3:5-10; see PRIEST).
Duties concerning the tabernacle After helping to construct the tabernacle (Exod 38:21), the Levites had the duty of setting up, taking down, maintaining and transporting the tabernacle on the journey to Canaan (Num 1:50-51). The Gershon group looked after the curtains and other hangings, and had two wagons to carry their load (Num 3:21-26; 7:7). The Merari group had care of all the timber and metal parts, and had four wagons to carry their load (Num 3:33-37; 7:8). The Kohath group looked after the sacred furniture, most of which they carried on shoulder poles (Num 3:27-32; 7:9; 1 Chron 15:14-15). On the journey the Levites travelled in the centre of the procession (Num 2:17). When a camp was set up, they camped immediately around the tabernacle (Num 1:52-53; 3:23,29,35,38).
Representatives of the people
Since God had saved the Israelites’ firstborn through the Passover judgment, all their firstborn belonged in a special sense to God. For the service of the tabernacle, however, God used the Levites instead of the firstborn (Num 3:11-13,40-51). In a dedication ceremony involving cleansing rituals and sacrificial offerings, Moses and Aaron presented the Levites to God for his service (Num 8:5-13). God then gave the Levites back to Aaron to help him and the other priests in their work (Num 8:14-19). Leaders of the people also took part in the ceremony, to indicate symbolically that the Levites were the people’s representatives (Num 8:9-10).
Levites began their service at the age of thirty, though this was apparently preceded by a training period of five years. They ceased their main duties at the age of fifty, but could still help in various ways (Num 4:3; 8:23-26). Having no time to earn a living as others, the Levites received their income in the form of tithes offered by the people (Num 18:21-28; see TITHES). Although Levi had no tribal area of its own, Joshua gave the Levites cities in each of the other tribes. The number of cities in each tribe was in proportion to the size of the tribe (Num 35:1-8; Josh 21:1-3). There were forty-eight Levitical cities and these were divided among four groups – the priestly Kohathites (Aaron was a Kohathite; Exod 6:16-20), the non-priestly Kohathites, the Gershonites, and the Merarites. The cities for the priestly group were all within easy reach of Jerusalem, where the temple was later built (Josh 21:4-8). Among the forty-eight cities were six cities of refuge (Josh 20:1-9; see CITY OF REFUGE).
Temple service
In arranging the functions for priests and Levites in Israel’s temple services, David divided the Levitical singers and musicians into the usual three family groups. The respective leaders were Heman, Asaph and Ethan (Jeduthan), all of whom are mentioned as writers of psalms (1 Chron 6:1,31-48; 15:16- 22; 2 Chron 5:12; Ps 73-83; 88; 89). Other duties of Levites included cleaning the temple (1 Chron 23:28), helping the priests in the temple rituals (1 Chron 23:28-32), serving as temple guards (1 Chron 9:17-27) and looking after the furniture, food and spices used in the ceremonies (1 Chron 9:28-32). Some of the Levites served as judges and officials of various kinds (1 Chron 23:4; 26:20). When David found that there were too many Levites for the amount of work available, he divided them into twenty-four groups according to their family descent. The groups served in rotation one week every six months, though all groups were on duty for the annual festivals (thereby making up the remaining four weeks of the year) (1 Chron 23:1-24; 24:18-19; 25:9-31; 26:1,12).
Errors, reforms and developments
Over the following centuries, the nation and many of its kings frequently fell into idolatry. Priests and Levites usually played an important part in the reforms that godly kings carried out (2 Chron 17:7-9; 19:8-11; 29:1-16; 30:21-22; 34:8-13), though at times they were slow to respond to the king’s directions (2 Chron 24:4-13). A feature of some of the reforms was the organization of temple duties for priests and Levites according to David’s original plan (2 Chron 29:25-30; 31:2-19; 35:1-15). When, after seventy years captivity in Babylon, the Jews were released, many Levites were among those who returned to Jerusalem (Ezra 2:40-42).
They supervised the reconstruction of the temple and participated in ceremonies connected with the building’s beginning and completion (Ezra 3:8-11; 6:16). At first they were properly organized for religious service (Ezra 6:18), but later they were neglected by those who should have supported them with their tithes. Nehemiah corrected this problem by organizing an orderly system of tithing (Neh 10:37; 11:3; 12:27,47). Another result of Nehemiah’s reforms was increased activity in teaching the law. The Levites helped the priests and scribes in this work (Neh 8:7-9), but the good work of these early leaders was not maintained by those of later generations. The result was the development of that form of Jewish religion known in New Testament times as Judaism (see SCRIBE; SYNAGOGUE). Nevertheless, people of New Testament times still saw Levites as a class of people distinct from both the priests and the scribes (Luke 10:25,31-32; John 1:19; Acts 4:36).
LIE
Deceitful actions as well as deceitful words are wrong and are condemned by God. People can act lies as well as speak them (Gen 27:8-23; Jer 23:32; Acts 5:1-4; Eph 4:25; 1 John 2:4; 4:20). They are considered guilty even when they tell only half the truth, if their purpose is to hide the full truth (Gen 20:1-3,9-13). Likewise people are guilty when they twist the truth to make it acceptable to others (Jer 8:8- 9; 14:13-15). If they make false accusations against the innocent, they are guilty of lying and are assured of God’s severe punishment (Deut 19:15-19; 1 Kings 21:8-19). People tell lies to deceive others, but at the same time they lead themselves astray (Amos 2:4). They reject the way of truth and therefore open the way for falsehood to control their thoughts and actions (John 8:44-47; Rom 1:25-32; 2 Thess 2:9-12; see TRUTH).
They seek safety through their lies, but the safety proves to be deceptive (Isa 28:15,17; Ezek 13:8; cf. Heb 6:18). Although lying is a natural result of sinful human nature (Col 3:9), there is no excuse for it in the lives of God’s people. The Spirit within them is the Spirit of truth, and he can enable them to overcome the sinful tendencies of the old nature (John 14:17; Gal 5:16,24-25; 1 John 2:21). God consistently tells his people that they are not to lie (Exod 20:16; Lev 19:11; Eph 4:25). A hatred of lying is one indication that they are God’s people (Zeph 3:13; Rev 14:5). Those who habitually lie are giving an indication that they have never known God’s salvation and the new life that comes with it. They will not escape God’s punishment (Prov 19:5; Rev 21:8,27). A further reason for Christians to avoid lying is that they are God’s children. God does not lie (Num 23:19; Titus 1:2; Heb 6:18) and his children are to grow to be like him (Col 3:9-10). By contrast, Satan is the father of lies, and his children naturally reflect his nature (John 8:44).
LIFE
God is the source and controller of all life. He brings it into existence, sustains it, and brings it to an end, all according to his purposes (Gen 2:7; Num 16:22; Deut 32:39; Job 34:14-15; Ps 36:9; Eccles 12:7; Matt 10:28; Luke 12:20; 1 Tim 6:13).
Human life is especially sacred, for people exist in God’s image. Israelite law therefore considered that any person who murdered another was no longer worthy to enjoy God’s gift of life and had to be executed (Gen 9:5-6; Num 35:33; see IMAGE). The law required that even when people killed animals for food, they had to carry out the killing with fitting acknowledgment that the life belonged to God (Gen 9:4; Lev 17:2-4,10-14; Deut 12:15-16; see BLOOD).
Human life
In speaking of human life, people often make a contrast between physical life and spiritual life. But God’s intention is that all aspects of a person’s life be united harmoniously.
God wants people to enjoy their physical life fully, but to do so in a right relationship with himself (Deut 8:1,3; 30:15-20; Ps 16:9-11; Eccles 5:18-20; 9:9-10). The life that is proper to them is one in which physical and spiritual aspects find their fulfilment as a unity (see HUMANITY, HUMANKIND). Sin, however, has so changed the character of human existence that life is no longer as it should be. Because of sin, the lives of all people are affected by the power of death. The result is that physically they are doomed to death and spiritually they are dead already (Rom 5:12; 6:23; Eph 2:1; 4:18; see DEATH). They are cut off from God and therefore cut off from true spiritual life, the life that is life indeed, eternal life (1 Tim 6:19). The Bible may speak of human life from both the physical and the spiritual aspects (Gen 25:7; 27:46; John 5:40; 6:33), but these two aspects are not opposed to each other. Nor are they completely separated. Life in its physical earthly existence finds new meaning when people are ‘born again’. They then receive spiritual life as the free gift of God (John 1:13; 3:5-6; Eph 2:5; see REGENERATION). They find life in its truest sense; they begin a new existence (Mark 8:35; John 12:25). Even though physical death is the common experience of all, believers will never be separated from God (John 8:51; Rom 8:38-39). Their physical death is viewed as a temporary ‘sleep’. At Christ’s return, God will raise them to resurrection life, where sin and death will have no more power (John 11:11,25-26; 1 Cor 15:20-26,51-57).
Eternal life
Life in its highest sense is what the Bible calls eternal life (1 Tim 6:13,15-16,19). In referring to this life as eternal, the Bible is emphasizing its quality rather than its length. The word ‘eternal’ comes from the Greek word for ‘age’ or ‘era’. Eternal life is the life of the age to come. It is the life that belongs to the eternal and spiritual world in contrast to the life of the temporal and physical world (John 4:10,13-14; 6:27,35,40). Certainly, that age will be unending (John 6:51; 8:51), but more importantly it will be an age when people enjoy the close personal relationship with God for which they have been made. They will enjoy the life that God desires them to live (John 6:63; 10:10; 17:3; Eph 2:1,5-6; Phil 1:21; see ETERNITY). This eternal life has its source in God. In fact, it is a characteristic of the nature of God himself. It has been revealed through Christ, made possible through Christ, and is available to all through Christ (John 1:4; 5:26; 14:6; Col 3:4; 1 John 5:20). People cannot achieve eternal life by their own efforts. It comes solely as the gift of God (John 10:28; Rom 6:23; 1 John 5:11). But God gives this gift only to those who repent of their sins and commit themselves in faith to Jesus (John 3:16; 11:25; 17:3; 20:31; Acts 11:18; 1 John 5:12). God wants people to have confidence and assurance in the eternal life that he gives them. Those who have eternal life have salvation; those without it are under condemnation (John 3:18,36; 5:24; 1 John 5:13; see ASSURANCE; SALVATION). Being part of a world affected by sin and death, believers may have to pass through physical death, but they will never die in the sense that really matters (John 11:25-26). They have eternal life now (John 5:24; Eph 2:1; 1 John 3:14), and can look forward to the experience of that life in its fulness in the age to come. When Jesus Christ returns, they will be raised from death to enjoy the resurrection life of glory, perfection, power and immortality (Matt 25:46; John 5:28-29; 6:40; Rom 2:7; 6:22; 1 Cor 15:42-44; 2 Cor 5:4; 2 Tim 1:10; see RESURRECTION).
LIGHT
By common usage, in Bible times as well as today, light is figuratively associated with things that are good. In like manner darkness is usually associated with things that are bad (Job 30:26; Ps 112:4; John 3:19-20; see DARKNESS). In particular, light is associated with God. He is clothed in light, he dwells in light, he is light. Because God is separate from all creation, and especially from all things sinful, light is symbolic of God’s holiness (Ps 104:2; Dan 2:22; 1 Tim 6:16; 1 John 1:5).
It is also symbolic of the holiness that should characterize God’s people. As light can have no partnership with darkness, so God’s people should have no partnership with sin (Prov 4:18-19; Isa 2:5; Rom 13:12-13; 2 Cor 6:14; Eph 5:8-11; 1 John 1:6-7; 2:9- 10; see HOLINESS). Just as the uniqueness of God is symbolized by light, so is the uniqueness of Jesus Christ, who is God in human form (Matt 17:2; Acts 9:3-5; Rev 1:16). Jesus likened his coming into the world to the coming of light into darkness. He is the light of the world, who brings the life and salvation of God into a world that is dark and dead because of sin (Matt 4:16; John 1:4-5; 3:19; 8:12; 12:35-36,46; 2 Cor 4:6; cf. Ps 27:1). Those who turn to Christ for salvation are, by God’s grace, transferred from a kingdom of darkness into a kingdom of light (Col 1:12-13; 1 Peter 2:9). They become lights in the world, as they take the good news of Jesus Christ to those who are still in darkness (Matt 5:14-16; Acts 13:47; Phil 2:15; Rev 11:4; see WITNESS). God’s Word is also a light, as it guides them along the path of life (Ps 119:105; Prov 6:23; see LAMP).
LOAN
See LENDING.
LONGSUFFERING
See PATIENCE.
LORD
For the use of ‘Lord’ among the Israelites of Old Testament times see YAHWEH. For the use of ‘Lord’ among the followers of Jesus in New Testament times see JESUS CHRIST, sub-heading ‘Jesus as Lord’.
LORD’S DAY
Christians in the early churches met together often (Acts 2:46; Heb 10:25). Although the frequency of meetings varied from place to place, the common practice seems to have been that all the Christians in a church met together at least on the first day of each week (Acts 20:7; 1 Cor 11:20; 16:2). By the end of the first century, Christians commonly referred to the first day of the week as the Lord’s day, probably because it was the day on which Jesus rose from the dead as the triumphant Lord (John 20:1,19; cf. Acts 2:36; Rom 1:4; Phil 2:9-11). (Concerning the difference between the Lord’s day and the Jewish Sabbath see SABBATH.)
LORD’S SUPPER
In both the New Testament and the present day church, the Lord’s Supper is known by a number of names. Paul calls it, literally, the supper of the Lord, because Christians keep it on the Lord’s authority and in his honour (1 Cor 11:20). Paul speaks of it also as a communion, meaning an act of fellowship, or sharing together, in Christ (1 Cor 10:16; see COMMUNION). Luke calls it the breaking of bread, referring to part of the meal as a shortened title for the whole (Acts 2:46; 20:7). Another name, the Eucharist (from the Greek word for ‘thanksgiving’), refers to Jesus’ act of giving thanks for the bread and wine (Mark 14:23; 1 Cor 11:24).
The last supper
Jesus instituted the Lord’s Supper while eating a Passover meal with his disciples the night before his crucifixion (Luke 22:8,12,15). (For details of a Passover meal see PASSOVER.) During the meal Jesus took some of the bread and wine from the table and passed each in turn among his disciples, inviting them to eat and drink. The bread and wine were symbols of his body and blood, which he was to offer on the cross as a sacrifice for the forgiveness of sins (Matt 26:26-28; cf. Isa 53:4-6,10). God had once made a covenant with Israel and sealed it with blood (Exod 24:6-8; see COVENANT). Through Jeremiah he promised a new covenant, one that would bring forgiveness of sins and give new life through the indwelling Spirit (Jer 31:31-34; cf. Ezek 36:26-27).
Jesus established this covenant, his blood sealed it, and the supper he instituted is a reminder of its meaning to those who believe in him. The Old Testament system, having reached its fulfilment, is replaced by the new covenant with its unlimited blessings (Matt 26:28; 1 Cor 11:25). When Israelites observed the Passover, they reminded themselves that their lives had been saved only through the death of the Passover lamb. When Christians observe the Lord’s Supper, they remind themselves that they have eternal life only through the death of Christ (1 Cor 11:23-24; cf. 5:7). Christians keep the Lord’s Supper not only in remembrance of Christ’s death, but also in anticipation of his return. When that day comes, bread and wine will no longer be necessary. Christ and his people will be together for ever in the triumphant kingdom of the Messiah. In that day there will be far more blessed fellowship between Christ and his people, likened to a heavenly feast with new wine (Matt 26:29; Luke 22:16,18; 1 Cor 11:26).
The practice of the church
From the earliest days of the church, Christians joined regularly to eat the Lord’s Supper. It seems that at first they ate it as part of their ordinary meals, and may even have done so daily (Acts 2:42,46). Later they ate it less frequently, perhaps weekly (Acts 20:7), but the practice of combining it with a common meal continued for some time. These common meals were called love feasts, and were occasions when the rich could show love and fellowship by sharing food generously with the poor. At Corinth, however, many of the rich greedily ate their own food, without waiting for others to arrive and without sharing it with others. Instead of being a love feast, it was a selfish feast. Instead of being a supper in honour of the Lord, it was very much a supper for themselves (1 Cor 11:20-22; cf. Jude 12). Paul reminded the Corinthian church that if Christians make a mockery of the Lord’s Supper through wrong behaviour, they may bring judgment upon themselves. They must therefore examine themselves and correct any wrong attitudes they may have towards the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:27-34). Far from being a cause of division among Christians, the Lord’s Supper should be something that binds them together.
Christians demonstrate their unity in Christ as they share in the same bread and the same wine. They show that they are united with each other and with Christ in one body (1 Cor 10:17; cf. 11:18-21). Eating bread and drinking wine together in the Lord’s Supper is more than just a remembrance of Christ’s suffering and death. It is a spiritual sharing together in the body and blood of Christ, a fresh enjoyment of and proclamation of the benefits of his death. It is not a time of mourning, but a time of joyful fellowship with the risen Lord (1 Cor 10:16; 11:26; cf. John 6:48-51; Acts 2:46-47). The Lord’s Supper is therefore an important part of worship in the church. It is enriched when fittingly combined with prayers, singing, preaching, the reading of the Scriptures and instruction in Christian teaching (cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 14:26; Col 3:16; see WORSHIP)
LOT
When Abraham and his household moved from Mesopotamia into Canaan, his nephew Lot went with him. He also went with Abraham into Egypt, and then back into Canaan (Gen 11:26-31; 12:1-5,10; 13:1). Like Abraham, Lot was a wealthy owner of sheep and cattle. When trouble arose between Abraham’s and Lot’s workers, the two households separated. Lot chose for himself the fertile pasture lands around Sodom and Gomorrah, east of the Dead Sea (Gen 13:5-11). Lot’s choice was selfish and it soon brought him trouble.
Mesopotamian invaders raided his territory, plundered his goods and took Lot himself captive. Only swift action by Abraham rescued him (Gen 14:1-3,12-16). Lot established himself in the city of Sodom and continued to increase in prosperity. But Sodom and the neighbouring city of Gomorrah were so morally corrupt that God decided to destroy them (Gen 13:12- 13; 18:20-21). Lot did not agree with the immoral practices of Sodom (2 Peter 2:7-8), though he apparently did nothing to oppose them. He was even prepared to allow the sexual perverts of the city to rape his daughters, in order to save two guests from homosexual assault (Gen 19:1-11). Lot was so much at home in Sodom that even when God’s judgment was about to fall on the city, he did not want to leave (Gen 19:15-20). The two daughters of Lot, still affected by the evil influences of Sodom, forced their father into immoral sexual relations with them. The two children born as a result marked the beginnings of two nations, Ammon and Moab (Gen 19:30-38).
LOVE
In the language of the Bible, as in most other languages, the word ‘love’ has a very broad meaning. It may apply to God’s love for people (Deut 7:12-13; John 3:16), people’s devotion to God (Ps 91:14; 1 Cor 8:3), pure sexual love between a man and a woman (Prov 5:18-19; Song of Songs 2:4-5), impure sexual activity such as in prostitution (Jer 4:30; Hosea 2:12-13), love between members of a family where sexual feelings are not involved (Gen 22:2; Ruth 4:15), an attitude of kindness towards others, whether friends or enemies (Lev 19:17-18; 1 Sam 18:1,16; Matt 5:43-46; John 11:3), or the desire for things that brings pleasure or satisfaction (Prov 20:13; 1 Tim 6:10). Where the Bible gives teaching about love, the centre of love is usually the will, not the emotions. Such love is a deliberate attitude, not an uncontrollable feeling (Matt 5:44-46). This characteristic is seen in both divine love and human love. The Bible commands people to love; it commands them to act in a certain way, regardless of how they feel (Deut 11:13; 22:37-39; John 13:34; 15:17; Eph 5:25; Titus 2:4; 1 John 4:20-21). Christian love does not mean that Christians try to create certain feelings towards others, but that they act towards others the way they know they should (Luke 10:27,29,37). The reason why they so act is that God’s love rules their lives, making them want to do God’s will (Rom 5:5; 2 Cor 5:14; 1 John 4:19). The more they act towards others in love, the more favourable their feelings will become towards those people.
Divine love
The love that God has for the sinful human race originates solely in his sovereign will. He loves people because he chooses to love them, not because they in any way deserve his love (Deut 7:7-8; Jer 31:3; Rom 5:8; Eph 1:4; 2:4-5; 1 John 3:1; 4:10). This was seen clearly in Jesus Christ, who throughout his life helped those in need and by his death saved helpless sinners. Salvation originates in the love of God, and that love found its fullest expression in the cross of Jesus Christ (Matt 14:14; Mark 10:21; Luke 7:13; John 3:16; 15:13; Gal 2:20; Eph 2:4-7; 5:25; 1 John 4:9; see also MERCY). Jesus Christ could perfectly express God’s love, because he and the Father are bound together in a perfect unity in which each loves the other (John 3:35; 10:30; 14:31; 15:9; 17:24). So much is love the dominating characteristic of the divine nature that the Bible declares that God is love. Everything that God says or does is in some way an expression of his love (1 John 4:8,16). If we find this statement hard to understand when we think of God’s wrath and judgment, the reason is probably that we misunderstand the nature of love. God’s love is not an irrational emotion divorced from justice and righteousness, but a firm and steadfast attitude that earnestly desires the well-being of his creatures. God has such a love for what is right that he reacts in righteous anger against all that is wrong. God’s wrath is the outcome of his love (Hab 1:13; 1 John 1:5; see WRATH). God wants to forgive sinners, but because he is a God of love he cannot treat sin as if it does not matter. He cannot ignore it. His act of forgiveness, being based on love, involves dealing with sin. At the same time, because he is a God of love, he provides a way of salvation so that sinners need not suffer the punishment themselves. He has done this by becoming a human being in the person of Jesus Christ and taking the punishment himself on the cross (John 1:14-18; 3:16; Rom 5:8; Gal 2:20; 1 John 4:10; see ATONEMENT). This same love causes God to discipline, correct and train his children, so that they might grow into the sorts of people that he, in his superior wisdom, wants them to be. God’s love towards his children is an authoritative love; their love in response is an obedient love (John 14:15,21; 16:27; 1 John 2:4-5; 4:19; 5:2-3). God’s chastisement may seem painful rather than pleasant, but to ask God to cease his chastisement is to ask him to love us less, not more (Heb 12:5-11; see CHASTISEMENT). Love desires perfection in the one who is loved, and will not be satisfied with anything less (Eph 5:25-27; James 4:5). Christians should accept whatever happens to them as being in some way an expression of God’s love and as being in accordance with God’s purposes for them (Rom 8:28; see PROVIDENCE). God’s gift of his Son is the guarantee that all his other gifts will also be an expression of his love (Rom 8:32). His love is everlasting and measureless. Nothing in life or death can separate believers from it (Jer 31:3; Rom 8:35-39; Eph 3:18-19).
Human love
Those whom God created have a duty to love him with their whole being. They are to be devoted to him and obedient to him (Deut 6:5; 10:12; Ps 18:1-3; Matt 22:37). As a result of such devoted obedience they will learn more of the meaning of God’s love and so will increasingly experience joyful fellowship with him (Ps 116:1-4; John 14:21-23; 1 Cor 2:9; 8:3; 1 Peter 1:8; 1 John 4:7,12,19). Love for God will at times create difficulties. Conflicts will arise as people put loyalty to God before all other loyalties, desires and ambitions (Matt 6:24; 10:37-39; John 3:19; 1 John 2:15-17). Genuine love involves self-sacrifice (Eph 5:25; cf. Rom 14:15; 1 Cor 13:4-7). Faith and obedience are just as basic to a relationship with God as is love. If people claim to love God but do not trust in him or obey him, they are deceiving themselves (John 14:15,24; Gal 5:6; James 2:5). Likewise they are deceiving themselves if they claim to love God but do not love their fellow human beings (Rom 13:10; 1 John 3:10,17; 4:8,20). Christians must have the same loving concern for others as they have for themselves (Matt 22:39; Phil 2:4). Love is a characteristic of those in whom the Spirit of Christ dwells; for when they receive God’s salvation in Christ, the Holy Spirit fills them with God’s love (John 15:9-10; Rom 5:5; Gal 5:22; Eph 3:17-19; 5:1-2). Christians should exercise this love towards everyone, and in particular towards fellow Christians (John 13:34; 15:12-17; Gal 6:10; 1 Peter 3:8; 1 John 3:16-17). Such an exercise of love provides evidence that they really are Christians (John 13:35; 1 John 3:14) and helps them grow towards spiritual maturity (1 John 4:12,17). The church of God is founded upon love and builds itself up through love (Eph 3:17; 4:16). A unity of love between Christians will be clear evidence to the world that the claims of Christianity are true (John 17:20-23). Although love for each other is something God demands, people should not practise that love solely as a legal requirement. They must act sincerely and display right attitudes, even when they feel no natural affection for the person concerned (Exod 23:4-5; Lev 19:17-18; Rom 12:9; 1 Cor 13:4-7; 1 Tim 1:5). Good deeds may be worthless in God’s sight if they do not arise out of sincere love (1 Cor 13:1-3; Rev 2:2-4).
Steadfast love
In the Old Testament the special love that God had for Israel was signified by the Hebrew word chesed. It is difficult to find an exact equivalent of this word in English. The RSV translates it mainly as ‘steadfast love’, the GNB as ‘constant love’, and the older English versions as ‘mercy’, ‘kindness’ and ‘loving kindness’ (cf. Gen 32:10; 39:21; Ps 100:5; 118:1-3; Isa 54:10; Hosea 2:19; Micah 7:18). The distinctive feature of chesed is covenant loyalty or faithfulness. A covenant is an agreement between two parties that carries with it obligations and blessings, and in the case of God and Israel this covenant was likened to the marriage bond. The two parties were bound to be loyal to each other (Deut 7:9,12; Neh 1:5; see COVENANT). God exercised loyal love and covenant faithfulness to his people, and this was to be the basis of their trust in him (1 Kings 8:23; Ps 13:5; 25:7; 103:17; 136:25; Hosea 2:19; Micah 7:20). Yet so often the people were not faithful to God in return. Their covenant love vanished (Hosea 6:4; 11:1-4). This chesed – this faithful devotion, this loyal love – is what God most desires from his people (Hosea 6:6). It also shows the quality of love that God requires his people to exercise towards others (Prov 3:3-4; Hosea 12:6; Micah 6:8).
LYCAONIA
Originally, Lycaonia was a small kingdom in Asia Minor. When the Romans incorporated Asia Minor into their Empire, they drew new boundaries and Lycaonia was split between the provinces of Galatia, Cappadocia and Cilicia. It is the Galatian part of Lycaonia that is referred to in the New Testament account of Paul’s first missionary journey. Paul established churches in the Lycaonian towns of Lystra and Derbe, and these were among the churches that he addressed in his letter to the Galatians (Acts 14:6). Although the local people spoke Greek, the chief language of the Roman Empire, they continued to use their own Lycaonian language (Acts 14:11).
LYCIA
The small province of Lycia in south-west Asia Minor was important mainly for its two ports, Myra and Patara. From these ports ships sailed east to Phoenicia, south to Egypt and west to Greece and Italy. The Bible records two occasions when ships on which Paul travelled called at the ports of Lycia (Acts 21:1-2; 27:5-6).
LYSTRA
Lystra was a town in the ancient kingdom of Lycaonia in Asia Minor (Acts 14:6). When the Romans took control of Asia Minor, they redivided it to form a number of provinces. Lycaonia was split between the provinces of Galatia, Cappadocia and Cilicia, with Lystra falling within Galatia. When Paul and Barnabas first visited Lystra, they healed a crippled man. The local people were impressed and, thinking Paul and Barnabas were two of the Greek gods, they prepared to offer sacrifices to them. Because Paul and Barnabas did not understand the local language, they were not aware at first what was happening. When they found out, they quickly stopped the people and proclaimed publicly the nature of the one and only true God (Acts 14:8-18). Jews from neighbouring Antioch stirred up the people of Lystra against the missionaries, and Paul was nearly killed (Acts 14:19-20). The wounds Paul received at this time may have been those he referred to when he later wrote to these Christians (Gal 6:17). Timothy, who came from Lystra and who accompanied Paul on some of his missionary travels, may have witnessed the incident (Acts 16:1-2; 2 Tim 3:10-11).