JABBOK
To the east of the Jordan River was a high tableland region divided into two by the Jabbok River. Before Joshua’s conquest of Canaan, the area north of the Jabbok was controlled by the Amorite king Og. The area south of the Jabbok was controlled by another Amorite king, Sihon, who had taken the territory from the nations of Ammon and Moab. Israel conquered both kings, and the territory became the homeland of the two and a half tribes of Israel that settled east of Jordan (Num 21:21-26,31-35; 32:33). The town of Penuel, on the Jabbok River close to its junction with the Jordan, became a strategically important defence outpost (Judg 8:9,17; 1 Kings 12:25; see PENUEL).
JACOB
Events relating to a child’s birth often influenced parents in their choice of a name for the child. Isaac and Rebekah gave the second of their twin sons the name Jacob (meaning ‘to hold the heel’) because at the birth the baby Jacob’s hand took hold of the heel of the first twin, Esau (Gen 25:24-26). When the two boys grew to adulthood, Jacob proved to be true to his name when he again took hold of what belonged to his brother, by cunningly taking from him the family birthright and the father’s blessing (Gen 27:36). From the beginning God made it clear that he had chosen Jacob, not Esau, as the one through whom he would fulfil his promises to Abraham. But that was no excuse for Jacob’s trickery (Gen 25:23; Mal 1:2; Rom 9:10-13). The line of descent from Abraham through Isaac and Jacob was the line God used to produce the nation that became his channel of blessing to the whole world (Gen 28:13-14). To the generations that followed, God was known as the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (Gen 50:24; Exod 3:6; Deut 1:8; Matt 22:32; Acts 3:13). The nation descended from Jacob was commonly called Israel (after Jacob’s alternative name; Gen 32:28), though in poetical writings it was sometimes called Jacob (Num 23:21; Isa 2:5; 43:28; Mal 3:6; Rom 11:26).
Building for the future
Jacob was a selfishly ambitious young man who was determined to become powerful and prosperous. By ruthless bargaining he took from Esau the right of the firstborn to become family head and receive a double portion of the inheritance (Gen 25:27-34; see FIRSTBORN). Later, by lies and deceit, he gained his father’s blessing This confirmed the benefits of the birthright, in relation to both the family and the nation that was to grow out of it (Gen 27:1-29; see BLESSING). (Concerning the lesser blessings given to the elder brother see ESAU.) To escape his brother’s anger, Jacob fled north. His excuse was that he was going to Paddan-aram to look for a wife among his parent’s relatives (Gen 27:41-28:5). Before Jacob left Canaan, God graciously confirmed the promise given to Abraham, and assured Jacob that one day he would return to Canaan (Gen 28:10-22). It was twenty years before Jacob returned. In Paddan-aram he fell in love with Rachel, younger daughter of his uncle Laban, and agreed to work seven years for Laban as the bride-price for Rachel. Laban tricked Jacob by giving him Leah, the elder daughter, instead.
He then agreed to give Rachel as well, but only after Jacob agreed to work another seven years as the extra bride-price (Gen 29:1-30). Upon completion of the second seven years, Jacob decided to work an additional six years. His purpose was to build up his personal flocks of sheep and goats, which he considered to be compensation for Laban’s repeated trickery. There was a constant battle, as two cunning dealers tried to outdo each other (Gen 30:25-43; 31:41). During these twenty years Jacob also built a large family. Leah produced several sons, but Rachel remained childless. Rachel therefore gave her maid to Jacob, so that through the maid he might produce sons whom Rachel could adopt as her own. Not to be outdone, Leah did the same. Finally Rachel produced a son, Joseph, and he became Jacob’s favourite (Gen 29:31-30:24). When at last Jacob and his family fled from Laban, Laban pursued them. In the end Jacob and Laban marked out a boundary between them and made a formal agreement not to attack each other again (Gen 31:1-55).
A changed man
As he headed for Canaan, Jacob knew that if he was to live in safety he would have to put things right with Esau. Esau by this time had established a powerful clan (Edom) in neighbouring regions to the south-east. Jacob was beginning to learn humility such as he had not known before and cried to God for help (Gen 32:1-12). God taught Jacob, through a conflict he had one night with a special messenger from God, that his proud self-confidence had to be broken if he was really to receive God’s blessing. The crisis in Jacob’s life was marked by God’s gift to him of a new name, Israel, ‘an overcomer with God’ (Gen 32:13-32). Jacob began to change. He humbled himself before Esau and begged his forgiveness, with the result that instead of further tension and conflict between the two brothers there was friendship and cooperation (Gen 33:1-17). Jacob then crossed the Jordan into Canaan, where he demonstrated his faith in God’s promises by buying a piece of land. He at least now had permanent possession of part of the land God had promised to him and his descendants (Gen 33:18-20). At Bethel God renewed his promises (Gen 35:1-15; cf. 28:13- 22). As if to emphasize that this occupancy of Canaan was by God’s grace alone, the writer of Genesis includes two shameful stories that show the unworthiness of Jacob’s family to receive God’s blessings (Gen 34:1-31; 38:1-30).
The only son of Jacob to be born in Canaan was the youngest, Benjamin (Gen 35:16-26). The family moved south to Hebron to be with the aged Isaac in his last few years (Gen 35:27-28). It seems that Jacob remained there while his sons took his flocks from place to place looking for pastures (Gen 37:14-17). Out of these circumstances came the dramatic sequence of events recorded in the long story of Joseph (see JOSEPH THE SON OF JACOB). The outcome of that story was that Jacob and all his family moved south through Beersheba and settled in Egypt (Gen 46:1-7,26). Jacob lived in Egypt seventeen years (Gen 47:28). Before he died, he raised Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, to the same status as his own sons (Gen 48:1-6). This was because he had given Joseph the birthright that the eldest son had lost (1 Chron 5:1-2; cf. Gen 35:22). Now Joseph, through his two sons, would receive twice the inheritance of the other sons (Gen 48:14-16; 49:26). Jacob then announced his blessing on all his sons in turn (Gen 49:1-27; Heb 11:21). By insisting that his sons bury him in Canaan, he expressed his faith that Canaan would become the land of his descendants (Gen 47:29- 31; 49:28-33; cf. 46:4). His sons carried out his wish (Gen 50:12-13).
JAMES THE APOSTLE
Two of the apostles had the name James. The lesser known was James the son of Alphaeus (Matt 10:3). Possibly he is the same person elsewhere called ‘James the less’ or ‘James the younger’, names no doubt given to distinguish him from the better known James. If this is so, his father must have had two names, Alphaeus and Clopas (Matt 27:56; Mark 15:40; John 19:25). The other apostle named James was the elder brother of the apostle John (Matt 10:2). In the Gospels, he is never mentioned by himself, but always together with his more famous brother. (Concerning the family background and personal experiences shared by the two brothers see JOHN THE APOSTLE.) Jesus had warned James and John that, as his followers, they could expect the sort of persecution he suffered. For James this came true a few years later when Herod Agrippa beheaded him (Matt 20:20-23; Acts 12:1- 2).
JAMES THE BROTHER OF JESUS
Since the brothers and sisters of Jesus are usually mentioned in association with Mary the mother of Jesus, it is natural to assume that she was their mother (Matt 12:46; 13:55-56; John 2:12). If that is the case, it means that after the birth of Jesus, Joseph and Mary began to have normal sexual relations (Matt 1:25). The mention of James’ name first in the list of Jesus’ brothers and sisters indicates that he was next oldest in the family after Jesus.
From unbelief to church leadership
During Jesus’ earthly life his brothers did not believe that he was the Messiah. They were religiously conservative, and they regarded Jesus’ unorthodox teaching and lifestyle as an indication that he was suffering from some sort of religious madness (Mark 3:20-21,31; John 7:3-5). But by the time of Jesus’ ascension they had become believers (Acts 1:14). This suggests that whatever happened at Jesus’ special appearance to James after the resurrection, it helped turn James, and the other brothers, from unbelief to faith (1 Cor 15:7). James soon became a prominent person in the Jerusalem church. When Paul went to Jerusalem for the first time after his conversion, the two leaders he met were James and Peter (Acts 9:26-27; Gal 1:18- 19). Some years later, when Paul, Barnabas and Titus visited Jerusalem to deliver a gift from the Antioch church, the leaders they met were James, Peter and John (Acts 11:30; Gal 2:1,9). On that occasion James and his fellow leaders expressed their support for Paul’s mission to the Gentiles (Gal 2:7-9).
James again appears as a prominent leader of the Jerusalem church in the story of Peter’s escape from prison (Acts 12:17). After Paul’s first missionary journey, a group of Jews from the Jerusalem church came to Antioch teaching that Gentile converts had to be circumcised and keep the law of Moses (Acts 15:1,5). They claimed that James had sent them (Gal 2:12), but when church leaders later discussed the matter at a special meeting in Jerusalem, James denied this (Acts 15:24). James, in fact, took the leading part on behalf of the Jerusalem church in confirming that Gentiles were saved by faith alone. In this he confirmed the truth of the message Paul preached. He asserted, moreover, that Gentile converts were not to be forced to obey Moses’ law. But it would be helpful, he suggested, if Gentile Christians respected their Jewish brothers by not engaging in practices that Jews considered repulsive (Acts 15:13,19-21). The people of Jerusalem in general had a great respect for James, and he became popularly known as James the Just. The character of his life and teaching can be seen in the New Testament letter that bears his name (James 1:1; see JAMES, LETTER OF).
Opposition from fellow
Jews In spite of James’ efforts, many in the Jerusalem church still refused to accept Gentile Christians as equals unless the Gentiles kept the law of Moses. When, many years later, Paul came to Jerusalem with an offering from the Gentile churches, he first met with James and the other elders (Acts 21:17-18). He soon learnt from them that many in Jerusalem were hostile to him because of his refusal to force the law of Moses upon his converts. They therefore suggested that Paul demonstrate his respect for the Jewish law by joining in a temple ceremony. Although their suggestion was intended to help Paul, it resulted in his imprisonment (Acts 21:20-24). The anti-Christian feeling in Jerusalem, far from diminishing, increased. History records that a few years later, in the early AD 60s, James himself was murdered by the Jews.
JAMES, LETTER OF
The author of the letter of James was most likely James the brother of Jesus. He was a leader in the Jerusalem church and was highly respected by the Jews. (For further details of the author see JAMES THE BROTHER OF JESUS.)
Background to the letter
It seems that the letter of James was among the earliest New Testament writings. It was written to Jewish Christians who had long been accustomed to the public worship of God in the synagogue, and who took their moral standards from the law of Moses. These things were in some ways a help to Jewish Christians, but in other ways they were a hindrance. Some of the Christians held firmly to the law they had always followed, but they became so coldly legalistic that their Christianity lacked life and enthusiasm.
Others erred in the opposite direction. They reacted against the restrictions they had once experienced under the law, and joined so freely in the common practices of the society around them that their behaviour became unchristian. James dealt with these problems by giving instruction on the nature of Christian faith. Faith is more than intellectual belief, and more than obedience to a set of rules. It is something that is living and active, and it expresses itself in right behaviour. It does not give people freedom to do as they like, but leads them to have a greater love for God and a greater love for others. It enables Christians, whether Jews or Gentiles, to live positively and joyfully for God in an ungodly society, without accepting the ungodly standards of that society.
Contents of the letter
James realizes that Christians face many trials and testings in life, so he begins his letter by encouraging them to meet their trials and testings in the right attitude. If they do, they will grow in their Christian lives (1:1-18). This growth depends upon their being obedient to God’s Word (1:19-27). Low standards of behaviour may be acceptable in society at large, but Christians must not allow such standards to influence their behaviour. They must not, for example, favour the wealthy or ignore the poor, but love all people regardless of class, as God does (2:1-13). If they say they have faith, they must give proof of it by the way they live (2:14-26). They are to control their tongues (3:1-12) and are not to be guilty of unspiritual or selfish behaviour (3:13-18). The attitude that produces such unchristian behaviour is what James calls worldliness (4:1-12). It causes Christians to live like the ordinary people of the world, whose chief concern is for their own advancement regardless of God’s will and God’s values (4:13-5:6). Christians should learn to be patient. They should put other people’s interests before their own and prayerfully trust in God at all times (5:7- 20).
JEALOUSY
There are two aspects of jealousy in the Bible, one bad, the other good. Jealousy in the bad sense is envy – the feeling of resentment or hate that people have towards those who have more influence, power, ability, status, fame or possessions than they (Gen 30:1; 37:11; 1 Sam 18:8-9; Job 5:2; Ps 106:16; Matt 27:18; Acts 5:17; 1 John 3:12). Such jealousy is a characteristic of sinful human nature, but the Spirit of Christ and the power of love in a person’s life can overcome it (Prov 27:4; Rom 13:13-14; 1 Cor 13:4; Gal 5:21; James 3:14-16).
Jealousy in the good sense is the desire a person has for the well-being of someone he or she loves. It is a desire so strong that it demands faithfulness and opposes all that would tempt to unfaithfulness (Num 5:12-15; Prov 6:32-35). This is what the Bible means when it speaks of God being jealous for his people. He desires their faithfulness and has a deep concern for their well-being (Exod 20:4-5; Deut 6:15; Josh 24:19; Ps 78:58; Zech 1:14; 1 Cor 10:21-22; James 4:5). Likewise the godly leader who is concerned for the spiritual progress of God’s people may speak of himself as being jealous for them (2 Cor 11:2). In the same way the person who is concerned to uphold the honour of God’s name is jealous for God (1 Kings 19:10; Ezek 39:25). Jealousy may therefore include the idea of zeal for all that is right and opposition to all that is wrong (Num 25:11-13; Deut 4:24; Nahum 1:2; John 2:17; 2 Cor 7:11).
JEBUSITES
The Jebusites were descended from Canaan, the grandson of Noah, and were one of the native peoples of the land of Canaan. They lived in the central highlands, where their chief centre was Jerusalem, earlier known as Jebus (Gen 10:15-16; 15:18-21; Exod 3:8; Num 13:29; Josh 11:3; 15:63; 18:28). Jerusalem’s position on a well fortified hill made the city extremely difficult to conquer (see JERUSALEM). Although Jerusalem fell at first to Joshua’s conquering Israelites, the Jebusites soon retook it, and they kept control of it till the time of David (Judg 1:8,21; 19:10-11).
Jerusalem was so difficult to capture that the Jebusites confidently claimed that even the blind and crippled could beat off an attack. But David’s men gained entrance through a tunnel used to carry water from a spring outside the city walls. They then launched a surprise attack and took the city (2 Sam 5:6- 10). In the years that followed, the Jebusites became absorbed into the Israelite population of Jerusalem. Eventually they disappeared as a distinct race.
JEHOAHAZ
Three kings in Israel and Judah had the name Jehoahaz. The first was the Judean king Ahaziah, for whom Jehoahaz was an alternative name. He reigned for only one year (842 BC; 2 Chron 21:16-17; 22:1; see AHAZIAH). The second was the son of Jehu who succeeded his father as king of Israel. He came to the throne in 814 BC and reigned for seventeen years. He was a worthless ruler, during whose reign attacks from Syria brought Israel almost to total collapse.
If God had not mercifully intervened, the people would have been left homeless and the entire army destroyed (2 Kings 13:1-9). The third king named Jehoahaz was a son of Josiah. He had a brief three-month reign over Judah (609 BC) in the kingdom’s closing years. Pharaoh Necho, having just defeated and killed Josiah, considered himself the overlord of Judah and would not accept Jehoahaz as king. Necho threw Jehoahaz into prison and later took him to Egypt, where he eventually died (2 Kings 23:29-34). He was also known as Shallum (Jer 22:11-12).
JEHOASH
Many people in Bible times had the name Jehoash, or Joash in its shorter form (e.g. Judg 6:29-31; 1 Chron 4:22; 7:8; 12:3; 27:28; 2 Chron 18:25). The most important of them all were the two kings who ruled during the time of the divided kingdom, one over Judah and the other over Israel. To avoid confusion, Jehoash of Judah is often referred to as Joash. When his father Ahaziah was killed, the mother of Ahaziah killed Ahaziah’s children and seized the throne of Judah. This woman, Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, then established her parents’ Baalism in Judah. The only child to escape her massacre was the year-old Joash, who was rescued by his aunt (wife of the high priest) and brought up secretly in the temple. After six years the high priest led a successful revolution that saw Athaliah killed, Baalism removed, and the child Joash placed on the Davidic throne (835 BC; 2 Kings 11:1-21). The most influential person in Judah at that time was Jehoiada the high priest, who trained and instructed Joash.
Because of Jehoiada’s influence, Joash matured into a good king (2 Kings 12:2; 2 Chron 24:2-3). When he found inefficiency, and possibly dishonesty, among those responsible for repairing the temple, Joash acted decisively to have the work completed promptly (2 Kings 12:4-16; 2 Chron 24:4-14). After Jehoiada’s death, Joash and his people drifted into idolatry and even killed a priest who rebuked them (2 Chron 24:15-22). God’s judgment fell upon Judah in the form of a costly invasion by Syria. Joash was assassinated by his own soldiers and was not even given a royal funeral (2 Kings 12:17-21; 2 Chron 24:23-27). Jehoash of Israel came to the throne at a time when Syria was crushing his country (798 BC; 2 Kings 13:7-9). Though unfaithful to God, he respected God’s prophet Elisha (2 Kings 13:11,14). In three battles against Syria he regained much of Israel’s lost territory, and only lack of faith stopped him from regaining a lot more (2 Kings 13:15-19,25). He was chiefly remembered for a battle with Judah that he tried to avoid. In a stunning victory he plundered Jerusalem and taught the arrogant Judean king a timely lesson (2 Kings 13:12; 14:8-14).
JEHOIACHIN
At the time of Babylon’s attack on Jerusalem in 597 BC, the Judean king Jehoiakim died and was succeeded by his eighteen year old son Jehoiachin (also known as Jeconiah, or Coniah). After three months resistance, Jehoiachin surrendered (2 Kings 24:6,8,12). The Babylonians then plundered Judah’s treasures and took Jehoiachin captive to Babylon, along with the royal family, palace officials and most of Judah’s best people (2 Kings 24:8-16; Esther 2:6; Jer 22:24-30; 24:1; 27:20; 29:2). One of the captives was Ezekiel (Ezek 1:1-2). In 561 BC a new Babylonian king released Jehoiachin from prison and treated him with special favour. To the captive Jews this was a sign of hope that one day they would all be released (2 Kings 25:27-30). When, after Persia’s conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, the Jews were released and returned to Jerusalem, a grandson of Jehoiachin, Zerubbabel, became their governor (1 Chron 3:17; Ezra 3:2; Hag 1:1; Matt 1:12).
JEHOIADA
The Bible mentions a number of people named Jehoiada. The only one concerning whom it speaks in any detail is the chief priest in Jerusalem who was the main influence for good in the life of the Judean king Jehoash (or Joash) (2 Chron 22:10-24:25; for details see JEHOASH).
JEHOIAKIM
Undoubtedly Jehoiakim was one of Judah’s worst kings. When his father Josiah was killed in battle with Pharaoh Necho (609 BC), the people of Judah made one of Josiah’s younger sons king in preference to the older Jehoiakim (2 Chron 35:20-25; 36:1-2). Pharaoh Necho, considering himself the master of Judah, replaced the people’s choice with his own. His choice was Jehoiakim (also known as Eliakim) (2 Chron 36:3-5). In order to raise the large amount of money that Pharaoh Necho demanded each year from Judah, Jehoiakim taxed his people heavily (2 Kings 23:35).
At the same time he built himself luxurious royal buildings, forcing people to work in his selfish projects without payment (Jer 22:13-19).
Conflict with Jeremiah
The chief opponent of Jehoiakim was the prophet Jeremiah, who had begun his preaching earlier, in the reign of Josiah (Jer 1:1-3). At the beginning of Jehoiakim’s reign, Jeremiah announced God’s judgment on the sinful kingdom (Jer 26:1-6). This brought opposition from the palace (Jer 26:10-11), but Jeremiah escaped unharmed. Another prophet, however, did not. Jehoiakim was angry at his preaching and executed him (Jer 26:20-24). Jeremiah warned that because of the idolatry of the king and his people, God would send the Babylonians against Jerusalem in judgment (Jer 25:1-9). This judgment began in 605 BC, the year in which Babylon conquered Egypt at Carchemish and so replaced it as Judah’s overlord. In returning to Babylon, the conquerors took with them selected captives from the leading families of Jerusalem (2 Kings 24:7; Jer 46:2; Dan 1:1-4).
At God’s direction, Jeremiah wrote down all the prophecies of the previous twenty-three years. After his secretary Baruch read them in the temple, the city leaders became so disturbed that they read them to Jehoiakim. The king defiantly burnt the scroll, and tried unsuccessfully to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch (Jer 36:1-26). Jeremiah then rewrote the scroll, with additions, and gave some encouragement to the frightened Baruch (Jer 36:27-32; 45:1-5).
Conflict with Babylon
After submitting to Babylon’s overlordship for three years, Jehoiakim rebelled by refusing to pay further tribute (2 Kings 24:1). In depending upon foreign nations to support his rebellion, he met further opposition from Jeremiah (Jer 2:18,36). Babylon did not attack Jerusalem immediately, but encouraged other countries within its empire to raid Judah and so gradually weaken it (2 Kings 24:2-4). In due course Babylon attacked Jerusalem (597 BC). Jehoiakim was taken captive and chained ready to be sent to Babylon, but he died before the journey began. No one mourned his death, and his body was thrown on the garbage dump outside Jerusalem, as if it were the carcass of an unclean animal (2 Chron 36:6; Jer 22:18-19; 36:30).
JEHORAM
Judah and Israel each had a king named Jehoram (often shortened to Joram). Judah’s Jehoram was the son of the good king Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 22:50). However, he himself was wicked. He married Athaliah, daughter of the Israelite king Ahab and his Baalist wife Jezebel, and introduced the Baalism of Jezebel into Judah (2 Kings 8:16-18; 2 Chron 21:4-6). To make sure no one stopped him doing as he pleased, he killed all likely rivals. Because of his wickedness, Elijah assured him of a horrible death (2 Chron 21:11-15).
During his reign Edom and Philistia broke free from Judah’s rule (2 Chron 21:8), and Arab raiders plundered Judah with much success (2 Chron 21:16-17). In one attack they killed most of the royal family (2 Chron 22:1). Jehoram died a horrible death as predicted, and no one regretted his departure (2 Chron 21:18-20). Israel’s Jehoram (often called Joram, to avoid confusion) was brother-in-law to Judah’s Jehoram. He was the second son of Ahab and Jezebel, and became king when his older brother Ahaziah died as a result of an accident (1 Kings 22:51; 2 Kings 1:2,17; 3:1). Though not as devoted to Baal as his parents, he remained in conflict with Elisha, the prophet who led God’s opposition to Baal (2 Kings 3:1-3,13; 6:30- 31). When wounded in battle with Syria, Joram returned to his summer palace in Jezreel to recover. There he was assassinated by his army commander Jehu, who then seized the throne and began a violent antiBaal purge (2 Kings 8:28-29; 9:14-26).
JEHOSHAPHAT
Five people named Jehoshaphat are mentioned in the Bible (2 Sam 8:16; 1 Kings 4:17; 15:24; 2 Kings 9:2; 1 Chron 15:24). Of these the most important was the king of Judah who reigned in Jerusalem from 870 to 845 BC (1 Kings 22:42). He is noted for his reformation of Judah after the political and religious disorders that had arisen towards the end of the previous king’s reign. Jehoshaphat began his reforms by destroying the Baal shrines and removing the cult prostitutes (1 Kings 22:46; 2 Chron 17:6). He then taught the people God’s law by sending a teaching team of priests, Levites and civil administrators on a circuit of Judah’s towns and villages (2 Chron 17:7-9).
He was able to give his full attention to these programs because he had first of all strengthened Judah against any interference from hostile neighbours (2 Chron 17:2). In an effort to remove injustice, Jehoshaphat reorganized Judah’s judicial system. He wanted all citizens to receive fair treatment, regardless of their status. He set up courts and appointed judges in all the chief cities of Judah, with the chief court in Jerusalem. Some courts dealt specifically with religious matters, and these were under the control of the high priest. Others dealt solely with civil matters, and these were under the control of the chief governor (2 Chron 19:4-11).
Under Jehoshaphat, Judah’s defences were greatly strengthened (2 Chron 17:2,10-13). King Ahab of Israel was so impressed that he persuaded Jehoshaphat to join him in a battle against Syria (1 Kings 22:1- 4). Jehoshaphat, however, did not trust Ahab’s court prophets, who seemed more concerned with pleasing Ahab than with telling him God’s will. Only the prophet Micaiah told the truth (namely, that Israel would be defeated), but Ahab ignored his advice, went to war and was killed (1 Kings 22:5-36). A prophet rebuked Jehoshaphat for cooperating with the Israelite king, who was morally corrupt, a worshipper of Baal and an enemy of God (2 Chron 19:1-3). Later, Jehoshaphat joined with Ahab’s equally corrupt son in a commercial partnership involving a fleet of ships. By wrecking the ships, God showed Jehoshaphat once more that he was not to cooperate with the Baal-worshipping kings of Israel (2 Chron 20:35-37).
Jehoshaphat had now learnt his lesson (1 Kings 22:49). Jehoshaphat proved that faith in God, not cooperation with Israel, was the way to success when he won a great victory over a huge enemy invasion force. He called the people to the temple to pray (2 Chron 20:1-6,13) and in reply received God’s assurance of victory (2 Chron 20:14-17). God then intervened to overthrow the enemy. Jehoshaphat’s people plundered the defeated army and returned in triumph to Jerusalem to praise God for hearing their prayers (2 Chron 20:18-30).
JEHOVAH
See YAHWEH.
JEHU
After Jezebel of Phoenicia had married King Ahab of Israel, she set about establishing her Phoenician Baalism as Israel’s official religion. God foretold through the prophet Elijah that Jehu would be his instrument to wipe out their dynasty and their Baalism (1 Kings 19:15-18; see BAAL). Some years later, when Ahab’s son had become king and Jehu had risen in rank to become Israel’s army commander, a prophet anointed Jehu and declared him the new king (2 Kings 9:1-10). At that time Syria was attacking Israel, and Jehu was commanding Israel’s army on its eastern border at Ramothgilead. However, he did not hesitate to leave the battle and head west for Jezreel, where the Israelite king Jehoram (or Joram) was recovering from wounds received in battle (2 Kings 8:28-29; 9:1-2,14,16).
Joram’s mother Jezebel was with him at Jezreel; so was Judah’s king Ahaziah, who was a grandson of Ahab and Jezebel and a nephew of Joram. Swiftly and mercilessly Jehu killed them all (2 Kings 9:17- 37). He ordered the execution of seventy other descendants of Ahab, and displayed their heads as a warning that the wrath of God would fall on any who opposed him (2 Kings 10:1-11). He also killed some relatives of Ahaziah whom he happened to meet (2 Kings 19:12-14). The climax of his anti-Baal activity was the cold-blooded massacre of any others he suspected of being Baal worshippers (2 Kings 10:15-27). In wiping out the dynasty of Ahab, Jehu was driven more by his desire for power than by his devotion to God; for he himself still worshipped at the idol shrines that Jeroboam had earlier set up (2 Kings 10:29,31). In spite of this he received God’s reward for ridding Israel of Jezebel’s Baalism. In fulfilment of God’s promise, his dynasty lasted longer than any other in Israel.
But people never forgot his butchery, and his dynasty was doomed to end, as it had begun, with violence (2 Kings 10:30; Hosea 1:4). Jehu’s massacre of all the chief administrators left Israel’s government weak and unstable (2 Kings 10:11). His withdrawal from the eastern border left Israel open to attack from the Syrians (2 Kings 9:4- 5,14-16). Hazael of Syria quickly overran most of Israel’s eastern territory, and continued to trouble Israel throughout Jehu’s reign (2 Kings 10:32-35; cf. 8:12; 1 Kings 19:17). Another man named Jehu was a prophet who announced God’s judgment upon an earlier Israelite king, Baasha (1 Kings 16:1,7,12). Later this same prophet brought God’s message to the Judean king Jehoshaphat. He also wrote the court record of Jehoshaphat’s reign (2 Chron 19:2; 20:34).
JEPHTHAH
Born of a prostitute and cast out by his family, Jephthah grew up in a tough and bitter world (Judg 11:13). When the people of his tribe decided to overthrow the Ammonites (who had oppressed them for eighteen years; Judg 10:7-8,17-18), Jephthah was the man they asked to be their leader. Jephthah accepted only after the tribal elders had agreed to his conditions, which were that after he had defeated the enemy, he would remain their leader and rule them as a civil governor (Judg 11:4-10). Jephthah had sufficient faith to believe that God would give Israel victory (Heb 11:32-34).
He was, however, only a recently reformed bandit, and he had little knowledge of the character of God or the law of God. By vowing, and then offering, his daughter as a human sacrifice in return for God’s help towards victory, he was following the religion of the false gods whom Israel worshipped (Judg 11:29-40; cf. 2 Kings 3:27). He was certainly not following the teachings of Yahweh (cf. Lev 18:21; Deut 12:31). When Jephthah attacked the enemy, he did not invite soldiers from the tribe of Ephraim to join in the main battle. The Ephraimites were offended and threatened him with violence. Jephthah responded in typically uncompromising fashion. He launched a furious attack and slaughtered the Ephraimites in thousands (Judg 12:1-6). He then settled down to the civilian rule that he had wanted, but after only six years rule he died (Judg 12:7).
JERICHO
The ancient town of Jericho was destroyed and rebuilt many times, though sometimes the rebuilt town was beside, rather than on top of, the ruins of the former town. The present town of Jericho, the Old Testament town destroyed by Joshua, and the New Testament town visited by Jesus all occupied different sites, though these sites are within a kilometre or so of each other. One reason for this constant settlement of Jericho was the presence there of a good spring of water. This ensured a constant supply of fresh water and made the place such an oasis that people called Jericho the city of palm trees (Deut 34:3). The town was located in a flat area of the Jordan Valley. To the east a small plain dropped away into the Jordan River, and to the west barren hills rose up to the central highlands.
Archaeological evidence indicates that Jericho was in existence in 8000 BC. Its first mention in the Bible concerns events about 1240 BC, when the Israelites under Joshua approached Canaan from the plains of Moab, crossed the Jordan River and conquered Jericho in their first battle in Canaan (Num 22:1; Josh 2:1-6:27). Joshua announced a curse over Jericho, and for the next few hundred years no one dared rebuild the town properly, though some sort of settlement still existed there (Josh 6:26; Judg 3:13; 2 Sam 10:5).
When a man named Hiel later rebuilt the city, he suffered the punishment announced by Joshua (1 Kings 16:34; cf. Josh 6:26). A school for young prophets was located at Jericho in the time of Elijah and Elisha (2 Kings 2:4-5,15-22). There were further destructions and rebuildings of Jericho over the following centuries. The town was still in existence in New Testament times, having been rebuilt by Herod the Great. The narrow road that descended from Jerusalem through wild and rocky country to Jericho was dangerous because of bandits (Luke 10:30). Jesus visited Jericho on his final journey to Jerusalem, and may have passed through the town on other occasions. Among those who benefited from Jesus’ visit were some blind beggars and a well known tax collector (Matt 20:29-34; Luke 18:35-43; 19:1-11).
JEROBOAM
Two kings of Israel had the name Jeroboam. Both of them ruled over the northern part of the divided kingdom, but they were separated in time by more than a hundred years and they belonged to different dynasties.
Jeroboam the son of Nebat
The books of Kings consistently condemn Jeroboam the son of Nebat, the man who led the northern tribes to break away from the Davidic rule. But the chief reason they condemn him is religious rather than political; for Jeroboam established his own religion in the north in opposition to the Levitical system that was based on the Jerusalem temple (1 Kings 15:34; 16:19; 22:52; 2 Kings 10:31; 14:24; 23:15). This false religion, set up by Jeroboam and followed by other kings, was the reason God destroyed the northern kingdom and sent the people into captivity (2 Kings 17:21-23). From his youth Jeroboam was capable and hard-working. Solomon was so impressed with the young man that he put him in charge of the Ephraim-Manasseh workforce (1 Kings 11:28).
The ambitious Jeroboam cleverly used his position to gain a following among his fellow northerners, in opposition to the southerner Solomon, whose policies he found oppressive. From the prophet Ahijah, Jeroboam learnt that God would punish Solomon by splitting his kingdom and giving ten tribes to Jeroboam. When Solomon tried to kill Jeroboam, Jeroboam escaped to Egypt, where he remained till the end of Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 11:29-40).
As soon as Solomon was dead, Jeroboam returned from Egypt and led a rebellion (930 BC). The northern tribes readily crowned Jeroboam their king, in opposition to Solomon’s son, Rehoboam. Rehoboam still reigned in Jerusalem, but only over Judah and its neighbouring tribe, Benjamin (1 Kings 12:1-20). Jeroboam made his capital in Shechem, but later shifted it a few kilometres north to Tirzah (1 Kings 12:25; 14:17; cf. 15:21,33). He was wary of the attraction that Jerusalem still held, fearing that if his people went there for religious ceremonies they might transfer their allegiance to Rehoboam. He therefore decided to set up his own independent religion. He built shrines at the towns of Bethel (near his southern border) and Dan (near his northern border), complete with his own order of priests, sacrifices and feasts. His religion attempted to combine the worship of Yahweh with Canaanite religion (1 Kings 12:26-33). A bold announcement of judgment by a prophet from Judah showed plainly that God would not accept this new religion (1 Kings 13:1-10). Ahijah repeated the announcement of judgment (1 Kings 14:1-18). During his twenty-two years reign Jeroboam fought against the Judean kings, Rehoboam and Abijam (1 Kings 15:6-7). His costly loss to Abijam was a final demonstration to him that God would not help one who had broken away from the Davidic dynasty and the Levitical priesthood (2 Chron 13:2-20).
Jeroboam the son of Joash
This Jeroboam is usually referred to as Jeroboam II, to distinguish him from the person who established the breakaway northern kingdom. Jeroboam II was one of Israel’s most powerful and prosperous kings, but religiously he was no better than the first Jeroboam. He ruled from 793 to 752 BC (2 Kings 13:13; 14:23-24). At that time Syria had declined in power and Assyria was concerned with struggles far removed from Palestine. Jeroboam II was therefore able to strengthen his kingdom without interference from hostile neighbours. He brought territorial expansion and economic growth on a scale not seen in Israel since the days of David and Solomon (2 Kings 14:25-28). The prosperity, however, brought with it greed, injustice and exploitation that the prophets Amos and Hosea condemned fearlessly (Amos 1:1; 2:6-8; 3:15; 4:1; 5:10-12; 6:4-6; Hosea 1:1; 4:1-2,17-18; 6:8-9; 12:7-8; see AMOS; HOSEA). Just as one prophet earlier had forecast the expansion of Israel’s territory, so another now forecast God’s judgment throughout that territory (2 Kings 14:25; Amos 6:14). Jeroboam would be killed and eventually Israel would go into captivity (Amos 7:9-11).
JERUSALEM
Jerusalem has existed for thousands of years and during that time the shape of the city has changed repeatedly – valleys filled in, hills taken away, other hills added by the accumulation of rubbish, and city boundaries altered from era to era. But the overall picture of an elevated city built on an uneven plateau remains as in Bible times.
Valleys and streams
The only convenient access to the city in ancient times was from the north, access on the other sides being hindered by cliffs that fell away into deep valleys. On the south-west side was the Valley of Hinnom, where at times idolaters set up altars on which they offered their children as burnt sacrifices to the god Molech (Josh 15:8; 2 Chron 28:3; 33:6). Jeremiah foretold God’s judgment on these people by announcing that in the place where they killed their children, they themselves would be killed and their corpses left to rot in the sun (Jer 7:31-34; 32:35). People also used the Valley of Hinnom as a place to dump broken pottery (Jer 19:1-13). Other rubbish accumulated, with the result that in later years the place became a public garbage dump where fires burnt continually. The Hebrew name ‘Valley of Hinnom’ transliterated via the Greek is gehenna, which was the word Jesus used to indicate the place of final judgment on the wicked (Matt 5:29-30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:33; Mark 9:43-48; cf. Rev 20:10,15; see HELL). Immediately to the east of the city another valley ran south, separating the city from the Mount of Olives.
This was known as the Valley of Kidron or the Valley of Jehoshaphat. In the rainy season a swiftly flowing stream ran from the hills north of Jerusalem through this valley, ending in the Dead Sea (2 Sam 15:23; 1 Kings 2:37; 15:13; 2 Chron 30:14; Joel 3:2,12; John 18:1). Between the city and the Kidron stream was the Spring of Gihon, whose waters King Hezekiah redirected into Jerusalem to improve the city’s water supply (2 Kings 20:20; 2 Chron 32:30; 33:14). The water flowed into pools, or reservoirs, some of which were damaged when the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem. They were later repaired in the time of Nehemiah (Neh 2:14; 3:15; cf. Isa 22:9-11). One of these reservoirs, the Pool of Siloam, was still in use hundreds of years later (John 9:7). Nearby was the Tower of Siloam which, somewhere about the time of Jesus, collapsed, killing eighteen people (Luke 13:4). In addition to the Spring of Gihon, there was a spring at En-rogel, just outside Jerusalem to the south (Josh 15:7; 2 Sam 17:17). The Jerusalem leaders had a means of sealing up these springs so that any besieging army would be without water (2 Chron 32:4). Apart from these two springs, Jerusalem had to depend for its water supply on rain water that was directed into stone reservoirs (2 Kings 18:31; Jer 38:6; John 5:2).
Mountains and hills
The commanding hill in Jerusalem was Zion, where for centuries a strong fortress enabled the city’s previous inhabitants, the Jebusites, to withstand Israel’s attacks. Finally, David defeated them (2 Sam 5:7; see JEBUSITES). The hill was also known as Moriah and was the place where David decided to build Israel’s temple (2 Chron 3:1; cf. Gen 22:2). Both the city and the temple were figuratively called Zion (1 Kings 8:1; 2 Kings 19:31; Ps 2:6; 9:11; 48:12; 74:2; Isa 8:18; see ZION). To the east of the Kidron stream was the Mount of Olives, so named because of its many olive orchards (2 Sam 15:30; 2 Kings 23:12-13; Ezek 11:23; Zech 14:4). The main road from Jerusalem to Jericho passed through the villages of Bethany and Bethphage on the slopes of the mountain (Mark 10:46; 11;1,11; Luke 10:30).
Also on the slopes of this mountain was a garden called Gethsemane, where Jesus often went with his disciples. On the night before his crucifixion he went to this garden to pray, and in the early hours of the morning was arrested there (Matt 26:30,36,47; Luke 21:37; 22:39,48). The Mount of Olives was also the place from which Jesus returned to heaven (Luke 24:50-51; Acts 1:9-12). Another hill outside Jerusalem was Golgotha (meaning ‘a skull’), the hill on which Jesus was crucified (Matt 27:33; Luke 23:33; John 19:17). No one is certain which of several possible sites is Golgotha or how the hill got its name, but it was on a main road not far outside one of the city gates. A garden containing a tomb was nearby (Matt 27:39; John 19:20,41).
Walls and buildings
From the days before Israel’s conquest under David, Jerusalem was a walled city and well fortified (Josh 15:63; 2 Sam 5:6-7). Walls and fortifications were repaired, enlarged, or added to by various Israelite kings. Among these kings were David (2 Sam 5:9; the Millo was some tower or other defence fortification), Solomon (1 Kings 9:15), Rehoboam (2 Chron 11:5), Asa (2 Chron 14:7), Uzziah (2 Chron 26:9), Jotham (2 Chron 27:3), Hezekiah (2 Chron 32:5) and Manasseh (2 Chron 33:14). Among the buildings that Solomon built as part of his program for the adornment of Jerusalem were an expensive temple, a magnificent palace, a military headquarters called the House of the Forest of Lebanon, an auditorium called the Hall of Pillars, a judgment court called the Hall of the Throne and a separate palace for the queen. All these buildings were contained within a large enclosure called the Great Court (1 Kings 7:1-12).
Several hundred years later, the armies of Babylon destroyed Jerusalem (587 BC). They broke down large sections of the city wall, burnt most of the houses and destroyed all the important buildings, including the temple and the palace (2 Kings 25:1-4,9). When Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC and allowed the exiled Jews to return to Jerusalem, the people first of all rebuilt the temple, completing it in 516 BC (Ezra 6:14-15). But during the next seventy years they did no major reconstruction work. The city was still in a state of disrepair and the wall surrounding the city had not been rebuilt. The Persians’ appointment of Nehemiah as governor was specifically for this project of reconstruction (Neh 2:1-8). The book of Nehemiah shows how Nehemiah carried out the work, and gives details concerning different sections of the wall and the various city gates (Neh 2:13-3:32). Herod the Great, with help from the Roman authorities, carried out major reconstruction work in Jerusalem during the period just before the New Testament era. The program included civil and military buildings (Matt 27:27; Mark 15:16; John 19:13; Acts 23:10,35). To the Jews the greatest of Herod’s works was the construction of a new temple (the previous temple having been destroyed by the Romans). It was built on the same site as the previous temples but was much larger and far more magnificent. It took many decades to build and was not completed till long after Herod’s death (Mark 13:1; John 2:20; Acts 3:2; see HEROD; TEMPLE).
Old Testament history of Jerusalem
It seems that Jerusalem was originally known by its shorter name Salem, and was the city of which Melchizedek was priest-king (Gen 14:18). When the Israelites entered Canaan, the city was occupied by the Jebusites and was known as Jebus. Although the city at first fell to the conquering Israelites, the local people soon retook it. When the Israelites, after their conquest of Canaan, divided the land between their tribes, Jerusalem fell within the tribal area of Benjamin. By that time the Jebusites were firmly in control of Jerusalem again, and they remained in control till the time of David (Josh 15:8,63; 18:28; Judg 1:8,21; 19:10-11). No doubt David had several reasons for wanting to conquer Jerusalem and make it the capital of his kingdom. Firstly, a city that was so hard to conquer would make an excellent site for a capital. Secondly, the conquest of such a long-held enemy fortress was certain to win nationwide support for David.
Thirdly, since Jerusalem was not in the possession of any Israelite tribe, there could be no cause for inter-tribal jealousy if he made it his capital. Although the Jebusites thought their city was unconquerable (2 Sam 5:6), David’s men took it in a surprise attack. They entered the city secretly through a water tunnel, which the Jebusites used for bringing water into the city from a spring outside the city walls (2 Sam 5:7-10). David’s plans were to make Jerusalem the religious as well as the administrative centre of his kingdom. He placed the ark of the covenant in a special tent erected for it in the city, and made arrangements for his son and successor, Solomon, to build a permanent temple on Mt Zion (2 Sam 6:17; 7:12-13; 1 Chron 15:29; 22:1-5; 28:11). Solomon’s plans, however, were for more than a temple. He wanted to make Jerusalem a national showpiece, and his building program included a luxurious palace and many other magnificent buildings. But his oppressive policies of forced labour and heavy taxes created a feeling of rebellion among the people. The outcome was that most of Israel broke away from Jerusalem after Solomon’s death (1 Kings 12:1-19).
Only two tribes remained loyal to the throne of David, and together they became known as the kingdom of Judah, with their capital at Jerusalem as previously. The remaining ten tribes still called themselves Israel and formed a separate kingdom in the north, with their own capital and their own religious system (1 Kings 12:20-33). From this point on the history of Jerusalem is to a large extent the history of Judah (2 Chron Chaps. 12-36; see JUDAH, TRIBE AND KINGDOM). Jerusalem fell under the domination of Babylon in 605 BC, and after repeated attempts at rebellion was finally destroyed by Babylon in 587 BC (2 Kings 24:1; 25:1-12). After Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC and released the captive people, the Jews returned to their land and reoccupied Jerusalem (Ezra 1:1-4; 6:15; Neh 2:17-20). Over the next century they rebuilt the temple, the city and the city walls, as outlined above. With the completion of Nehemiah’s program, the Old Testament history of Jerusalem comes to an end.
Into the New Testament era
During the four hundred years between the close of the book of Nehemiah and the opening of the New Testament, Jerusalem continued to have a colourful history. In 333 BC the Greek conqueror Alexander the Great won a decisive victory over Persia and the next year became the new controller of Jerusalem. Soon, however, the Greek Empire split. In the east there were two main sectors, Egyptian and Syrian, with Palestine being controlled by Egypt till 198 BC, and then by Syria. When, about 168 BC, fighting broke out among rival groups of Jews in Jerusalem, the Greek ruler in Syria, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, took the opportunity to invade Jerusalem, slaughter the Jews, and if possible destroy the Jewish religion.
After setting up a Greek altar in the Jewish temple, he took animals that the Jews considered unclean and offered them as sacrifices to the Greek gods. The Jews, led by a zealous group called the Maccabees, assembled a fighting force to resist Antiochus. After three years of fighting they won back their religious freedom and rededicated their temple (165 BC). The Maccabees decided to keep fighting till they had gained political freedom as well, and after twenty years were successful. For the next eighty years Jerusalem remained independent, but the Jews’ internal conflicts finally brought in the Romans who, in 63 BC, seized control of Jerusalem. After some initial confusion, Rome appointed as ruler of Palestine the man who became known as Herod the Great and whose extensive improvements to Jerusalem have been referred to above.
Jerusalem was the centre of opposition to Jesus and the place where he was eventually condemned and crucified (Matt 16:21; 23:37; Mark 11:15-18; John 11:55-57; 12:12,19). After Jesus’ resurrection, his disciples remained in Jerusalem till they received the promised Holy Spirit. The early church became established in Jerusalem, from where it spread to nations near and far (Acts 1:4; 8:1-4,14; 11;22; Rom 15:26-27). The Jerusalem church itself, however, had an unsettled early history. This was mainly because of its constant battle with narrow-minded Jewish legalists (Acts 11:2-3; 15:1-5). Paul tried to foster a sense of fellowship between the Jewish church in Jerusalem and the Gentile churches elsewhere (Acts 11:29-30; 21:20-26; Rom 15:25-27; Gal 2:9-10), but the city as a whole turned against him violently, as it had against Jesus (Acts 21:11-13,30-36; 22:22; 23:10-15,31-35).
Brief history to the present day
In AD 66 a group of Jewish extremists revolted against Rome, with the result that Rome attacked Jerusalem with its full force. In AD 70 most of the city, including the temple, was destroyed, as Jesus had foretold (Matt 24:1-2; Luke 19:41-44; 21:20-24). The Romans rebuilt Jerusalem in AD 132, declaring it a pagan city from which all Jews were excluded. When Constantine became Emperor in AD 313, he declared Jerusalem a Christian city. In AD 637 the Muslims conquered Jerusalem, and in 691 erected a mosque on the site where the Jewish temple previously stood. In 1542 the Muslim ruler rebuilt the city walls, and they still stand today. Except for brief and isolated periods, Jerusalem remained under Muslim control till 1967, when it was retaken by the Jews. The mosque on the temple hill, however, still stands.
JESUS CHRIST
‘Jesus’ was a common Jewish name and appears in the Greek language of the New Testament as the equivalent of the Hebrew ‘Joshua’ in the Old Testament. The name meant ‘Yahweh (Jehovah) is our Saviour’, and therefore was a fitting name to give to the one who would save his people, Yahweh’s people, from their sins (Matt 1:21). ‘Christ’ was a Greek word equivalent to the Hebrew ‘Messiah’ (Matt 22:42). (For the significance of this name see MESSIAH.)
Life of Jesus
The writers of the four Gospels provide most of the information concerning Jesus’ life and teaching, but they make no attempt to give a detailed biography of Jesus. They wrote at different times, for different people, in different places, for different purposes, and they selected their material accordingly (Luke 1:1-4; John 20:30-31). Yet there is no disagreement in the picture of Jesus they present: he is God in human flesh, the Lord and Saviour of the world. (See also GOSPELS.) For convenience we can divide the Gospels’ record of Jesus’ life into three main sections. The first has to do with his birth and early childhood, the second concerns his public ministry (i.e. his teachings, healings, miracles and other recorded activities) and the third centres on the events of his death and resurrection. Stories that describe events surrounding Jesus’ birth are recorded at some length. Nothing more is recorded of Jesus’ childhood till he was twelve years old. Even at that early age Jesus knew that he existed in a special relation with God; for he was God’s Son (Luke 2:42,49). There is no record of the next eighteen years or so of Jesus’ life. Then, when about thirty years of age (Luke 3:23), he was baptized and began his public ministry. His baptism showed on the one hand his complete willingness to carry out all God’s purposes, and on the other his complete identification with the people whose sins he would bear.
God then showed, through the descent of the Spirit in the form of a dove upon Jesus, that he had equipped him for this task (Matt 3:13-17; Acts 10:38; see BAPTISM; HOLY SPIRIT). Jesus had the Spirit’s power in unlimited measure (John 3:34), but he had to exercise it in keeping with his position of willing submission to the Father. Almost immediately after Jesus received this special power from the Father, Satan tempted him to use it according to his own will, independently of the Father; but Jesus overcame the temptation (Matt 4:1-11; see TEMPTATION). He then began to move about doing the work that his Father had entrusted to him. This public ministry of Jesus seems to have lasted about three and a half years. He did much of his work in the northern part of Palestine known as Galilee (Matt 4:12,23), though he met his fiercest opposition in Judea in the south, particularly in Jerusalem, which was the centre of Jewish religious power.
The Jewish leaders considered that Jesus’ claim to be the Son of God was blasphemy (Mark 2:7; 3:22; 14:61-64; John 7:25,40-44; 8:56-59; 11:55-57). Jesus knew that he eventually would be killed by the Jews in Jerusalem (Matt 16:21; 20:18-19; Luke 9:51), but he knew also that first he had to complete the work his Father had sent him to do (John 4:34; 9:4). Only when he had finished that work and the time appointed by his Father had come would he allow the Jews to take him and crucify him (John 7:30; 10:18; 13:1; 17:4-11). Jesus’ final week in Jerusalem was full of tension and activity and is recorded in greater detail than any other part of his life. He entered Jerusalem as Israel’s Messiah-King, cleansed the temple, debated with the Jews and gave teaching to his disciples on many subjects. He then allowed his enemies to arrest him, treat him cruelly, condemn him falsely and finally crucify him. Three days later he rose from the dead and during the next six weeks appeared to his disciples and others on a number of occasions in various places (Acts 1:3). His final appearance concluded with his ascension to heaven, though heavenly messengers reassured his disciples that one day he would come again (Acts 1:9-11; cf. John 14:3).
God in human form (the Incarnation)
In Jesus Christ, God became incarnate; that is, he took upon himself human form. Jesus Christ was the embodiment of God and, by coming into the world, made God known to the world. This shows that Jesus must have existed as God before he was born into this world; for only one who was previously with God could make God known (John 1:1,18; 3:13; 12:41; 17:5; 1 Cor 10:4). When he came into the world, Jesus added humanity to the deity that he always had (John 1:14; Heb 1:3). As the eternally existent Son of God, Jesus had no beginning (John 8:58; Col 1:17; Rev 1:8), but as a human being he had a beginning when he was born as a baby in Bethlehem. God became flesh (John 1:14; Gal 4:4; 1 Tim 3:16; 1 John 1:1-4; see SON OF GOD; WORD). This came about through the miraculous work of God’s Holy Spirit in the womb of the virgin Mary, so that the child who was born, though having no human father, was nevertheless fully human.
He was not an ordinary person whom God adopted as his Son, but a unique person who was actually God’s Son (Luke 1:27,31,35). In becoming a human being, Jesus did not cease to be God. His deity was not lessened in any way. When Philippians 2:7 says that Jesus, in being born into the world, ‘emptied himself’, it does not mean that he lost, voluntarily or otherwise, any of his divine attributes or qualities. Its meaning is well explained in the verses before and after, where it is clear that to empty oneself means to deny oneself totally, to sacrifice all self-interest. Jesus from all eternity had existed as God, yet he willingly sacrificed the supreme glory of heaven and took instead the place of a servant. What he sacrificed was not his deity, but the heavenly glories that were his by right. The limitation that he accepted in being born a human being was not a lessening of his divine powers or being, but the limitation of living like other human beings in a world of imperfection and suffering (Phil 2:5-8; cf. John 17:5; 2 Cor 8:9; Heb 2:9). Not only Jesus’ physical form but also his human nature was like that of human beings in general; except that, whereas the human nature common to all other people is infected by sin from birth, Jesus’ human nature was not. Because his oneness with humankind was complete, he was able to die for his fellow human beings and so free them from the evil results of sin (Rom 8:3; 2 Cor 5:21; Heb 2:14-15).
Fully divine yet fully human
Though human, Jesus retained his divine being and powers (Col 1:19; 2:9; Titus 2:13). His human and divine natures existed together – complete, united and inseparable – without either one lessening the other. Jesus was still the creator and controller of the universe (Col 1:16-17; Heb 1:2-3), the Lord of life (Luke 7:22; John 5:21,26; 8:51; 10:10,28), the forgiver of sins (Mark 2:5,7,10; 2 Cor 5:19), and the judge of the world (Matt 13:41-43; 25:31-32; John 5:26-27; 2 Cor 5:10). He was still the originator of divine truth (Matt 5:22,28,32,34,39,44; 12:5-8; Mark 13:31; John 14:6,10), the possessor of superhuman knowledge (John 6:64; 11:14; 18:4), the satisfier of people’s deepest needs (Matt 11:28-30; John 4:14; 6:35; 11:25) and the object of people’s worship (Matt 2:11; John 5:23; 9:38). Being the Son of God, Jesus was equal in deity with the Father (John 10:30). So completely were they united that Jesus could say that whoever saw him saw the Father (John 14:9; cf. Matt 1:23; 2 Cor 4:4; Col 1:15; Heb 1:3).
Therefore, whoever received him received the Father and whoever rejected him rejected the Father (Matt 10:40; Luke 10:16; John 12:44; 15:23; 1 John 2:23). Because he was God, Jesus demanded that total allegiance which only God could demand (Matt 10:37-39; Mark 8:34-35; John 3:36). At the same time Jesus was fully human (1 Tim 2:5; 1 John 1:1). He knew how it felt to be hungry, thirsty and tired (Matt 21:18; John 4:6; 19:28). He experienced poverty and sorrow as well as joy (Luke 9:58; 10:21; John 11:33-36; 15:11; Heb 5:7). He showed some of the emotional reactions common to human nature such as astonishment, disappointment, pity and anger (Mark 3:5; 6:6; 8:2; 10:14; Luke 7:9). He was inwardly troubled as he saw his crucifixion drawing near, and he desired the sympathetic company of his closest friends during his time of spiritual conflict in Gethsemane the night before his death (Mark 14:32-41; Luke 12:50; John 12:27).
A person who can help
Jesus exercised self-control in all aspects of his life and behaviour, and had the same sorts of temptations that other people have (Matt 4:1-11; Heb 2:17-18; 4:15; 1 Peter 2:23). Yet through it all he never sinned (Heb 4:15). Those who lived closest to him, and who saw more of him than anyone else, asserted that he never sinned (1 Peter 1:19; 2:22; 1 John 3:5). Even his enemies, when challenged to accuse him of sin, were unable to do so (John 8:46; cf. Matt 27:3-4). On account of Jesus’ endurance and obedience through all his temptations and sufferings, his life was one of continuous yet perfect development and maturing. The perfect boy grew into the perfect man, who thus became the perfect Saviour for all people (Luke 2:40,52; Heb 2:10; 5:8).
He can sympathize with the human weaknesses that people normally experience, but more than that he can help them triumph over those weaknesses (Heb 2:18; 4:15). Their Saviour is God, but he is a God who has lived as one of them in their world. To deny that Jesus was either fully divine or fully human is to deny that which is basic to Christian faith (1 John 2:22-25; 4:2-3; 5:6-12). Only because of the divine oneness between Father and Son can Jesus bring God to the people of the world, and only because of the human oneness between Jesus and his fellow humans can he bring people back to God (John 14:6-10; 1 Tim 2:4-6).
The obedient servant
In becoming human Jesus accepted the limitations that his humanity required. If, for example, he wanted to go from one place to another, he travelled the same as others and put up with the weariness of the journey. He did not use his divine powers to avoid the trials of human existence (John 4:3-6). He had taken upon himself the nature of a servant and he lived in obedience to and dependence on his Father. That was one reason why he prayed constantly (Mark 1:35; 6:46; Luke 6:12). Jesus’ acceptance of the limitations of human life meant also that if he wanted information he asked questions (Luke 2:46; Mark 5:30; 6:38; 9:21).
Being God, he must have had all knowledge, but his human consciousness of that knowledge and the way he used it were always in submission to his Father’s will. Certain areas of Jesus’ knowledge, therefore, may have been deliberately kept below the level of his human consciousness so that he could have no unnatural advantage over his fellows. But if his Father directed, Jesus could draw upon that knowledge (John 12:49; 14:10,24). As the obedient Son who took the humble place of a servant, he knew, and desired to know, only what his Father wanted him to know (Mark 13:32; John 8:55). This may help to explain why on some occasions Jesus’ knowledge was limited but on other occasions it was not. The Father allowed him certain knowledge that was in keeping with the mission for which the Father had sent him into the world. In these cases Jesus’ superhuman knowledge was not to give him a kind of magical solution to a problem, but to enable him to carry out the specific work that his Father required him to carry out at that particular time (Luke 6:8; John 1:47-49; 2:25; 4:18,29; 11:11-14; 12:49).
The superhuman knowledge that Jesus showed on such occasions was fully in keeping with the divine knowledge he repeatedly displayed in relation to the work his Father had sent him to do. That is why none of the events surrounding his death took him by surprise. He knew in advance that those events were part of his Father’s will for him (Matt 12:40; 16:21; 20:18; John 3:14; 6:64; 12:7; 13:38; 14:29; 16:32). In summary, then, Jesus exercised his divine knowledge in the same way as he exercised his divine power – always in complete dependence upon and obedience to his Father. He never exercised it for his personal benefit (John 5:19,30; 7:16; 12:49; cf. Matt 26:53-54). If Satan tempted Jesus to use his divine powers for his own benefit, Jesus must have possessed those powers (Matt 4:3-4; 26:53-54). Any limitation on Jesus’ physical capacity or knowledge was an indication not of a lessening of his divinity but of his submission to his Father’s will (John 8:28-29). Although Jesus lived a genuinely human life, he did so in the perfection that his deity demanded.
Mission and teaching
All that Jesus did and said was in some way a revelation of who he was. He was not simply a doer of good works or a teacher of religious truths, but the Son of God who came into the world to be its Saviour. His works and words are inseparably tied up with the nature of his person and mission (John 5:19,24,30,36; 14:7,10; see SON OF GOD). A central theme in all the works and teaching of Jesus was that in him the kingdom of God had come visibly into the world. The kingdom of God is the kingly rule of God, and Jesus proclaimed and exercised that rule as he released sick and demonized people from the power of Satan (Matt 4:23-24; 12:28). Even among people who were not diseased, Jesus preached the kingdom, urging them to enter the kingdom voluntarily in humble faith and so receive eternal life (Mark 1:15; Matt 6:33; 18:3; 19:16,19-23; see KINGDOM OF GOD).
He assured the repentant and the unrepentant that they would stand before him, for better or for worse, when he returns at the end of the age to bring the kingdom to its triumphant climax (Matt 13:47-50; 19:28; 25:34,41; cf. 2 Cor 5:10). In relation to the kingdom of God, Jesus often referred to himself as the Son of man. This title was taken from the heavenly figure of Daniel 7:13-14, to whom the Almighty gave a kingdom that was worldwide and everlasting (Matt 24:30-31; 25:31; Mark 8:38; 14:62; see SON OF MAN). Jesus rarely referred to himself as the Messiah, probably because of the widespread misunderstanding among Jews concerning the sort of Messiah they wanted. Jesus preferred the title ‘Son of man’ because it made people think about who he was. He wanted people to see for themselves that he, the Son of man, was both a heavenly figure and the Davidic Messiah (Matt 16:13-16; Mark 2:10,28; John 6:62; 9:35-36; 12:23,34; see MESSIAH). He wanted people to see also that he was the Lord’s suffering servant. The Messiah had to die before he could reign in the full glory of his kingdom (Matt 16:21; 20:28; see SERVANT OF THE LORD).
Likewise Jesus’ miracles were directed towards revealing who he was, though in a way designed to lead people to saving faith (Mark 2:9-12; Luke 4:18; John 9:16-17; 20:30-31; see MIRACLES). His parables had a similar purpose. They made people think, and those who understood and accepted their message entered the kingdom of their Saviour-Messiah (Matt 13:10-16; see PARABLES). Having entered that kingdom, people had to live by its standards. Jesus’ moral teaching, however, was not a code of legal regulations like the law of Moses; nor was it like the burdensome system of the rabbis. He wanted to change people inwardly and so produce a quality of life and character that no lawcode could ever produce (Matt 5:21-22,27-28; 7:29; see ETHICS; SERMON ON THE MOUNT). Jesus’ teaching had authority because he came from God, made known the character of God, brought people into a relationship with the living God, and enabled them to reproduce within themselves something of the character of God (Matt 5:48; 11:25-27; John 7:16-18).
Jesus as Lord
The Greek word kurios (i.e. Lord) in the New Testament is the same word that was used in the Greek translation of the Old Testament for the Hebrew word yahweh (i.e. Jehovah) (cf. Ps 32:2 with Rom 4:8; cf. Isa 40:13 with Rom 11:34). In the original Hebrew, Yahweh, the name of God, was a mysterious name that Jews of later times considered so sacred that they refused to speak it. The name was linguistically connected with the words ‘I am’ and referred to the eternal, unchangeable, ever-present God (Exod 3:13- 16; see YAHWEH). Jesus identified himself with Yahweh by calling himself ‘I am’ (John 8:58; see also John 4:26; 6:35; 8:12; 10:7,11; 11:25; 14:6; 18:5; Mark 14:62). The New Testament writers also emphasized this identification of Jesus with the God of the Old Testament. Repeatedly they quoted Old Testament references to Yahweh as applying to Jesus (cf. Ps 16:8 with Acts 2:24-25; cf. Isa 40:3 with Mark 1:1-3; cf. Jer 9:23-24 with 1 Cor 1:30-31; cf. Isa 8:13 with 1 Peter 3:15; cf. Ps 110:1 with Matt 22:41-45). Both the words of Jesus and the quotations of the New Testament writers reflect the Hebrew background of the New Testament.
According to that background, to call Jesus ‘Lord’ is to call him God. Most of the early Christians, however, did not come from a Hebrew background. They were Gentiles, not Jews, and they had no history of the usage of the name Yahweh to influence their thinking. Yet to them also, to call Jesus ‘Lord’ (kurios) was to call him God. Their understanding of kurios came from its usage in the Greek-speaking Gentile world in which they lived. In common speech, kurios may sometimes have meant no more than ‘sir’ or ‘master’ (Matt 21:30; Luke 12:45; John 12:21; Acts 25:26), but it was also the usual word people used when referring to the Greek and Roman gods (1 Cor 8:5). The Greek-speaking Christians’ use of this word for Jesus showed that they considered him to be God; not just one of many gods, but the one true God who was the creator and ruler of the universe, the controller of life and death (Acts 1:24; 13:10-12; 17:24; Rom 14:9,11; 1 Tim 6:15-16).
Through the resurrection and exaltation of Jesus Christ, God declared dramatically the absolute lordship of Christ (Acts 2:36; Rom 1:4; Phil 2:9-11). Believers in Christ gladly acknowledge him as Lord. They submit to him as to one who has complete authority over their lives, yet they love him as one who has saved them and given them new joy, peace and hope (John 20:28; Acts 10:36; Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 1:2-3; Eph 1:22-23; 2 Thess 3:16; Rev 22:20). One day Jesus Christ will return in power and glory. In that great day there will be universal acknowledgment that he is indeed Lord (1 Cor 15:24-26; Phil 2:11; 2 Thess 1:7; Rev 19:16; see DAY OF THE LORD).
The death of Jesus
Great though the incarnation and unique life of Jesus may be, they are not in themselves enough to meet the needs of a sinful human race. The incarnate Son of God had also to die. Salvation is not through the birth of Christ, nor through his life, but through his death (Matt 20:28; Rom 3:25; 1 Cor 15:2-3; Heb 9:12-14; Rev 5:9-10). Jesus knew that the chief purpose for which he had been given a human life was that he might offer that life back to God as a sacrifice for people’s sins. But the offering of that life could be an acceptable sacrifice only because Jesus lived it in full obedience to his Father, without sin (John 4:34; 6:38,51; 8:29; 12:27; Rom 5:19; Heb 10:5-10).
This devotion to his Father’s will drove Jesus on, even though he knew it was leading to crucifixion (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 14:36; Luke 9:51; 12:50; John 12:23-24; see CRUCIFIXION). He saw the whole of his life, including his suffering and crucifixion, as a fulfilment of the Old Testament Scriptures (Matt 26:53- 54; Mark 14:21,27; Luke 4:18-21; 18:31-34; 22:37; 24:25-27; 24:44-46). This did not mean that he felt no distress or temptation in the face of death. More likely it increased his suffering, but he resisted all attempts to turn him away from the cross. He gave his life willingly (Matt 16:21-23; 26:53; John 10:18; 12:27).
Jesus’ death, then, was not an unfortunate accident, nor was it the heroic deed of a martyr. It was the great act, the only act, by which God could deal with sin and release the guilty from sin’s punishment. Jesus gave his life as a ransom. He paid the price to deliver guilty sinners from the power of sin and death (Matt 20:28; 26:26-28; 1 Tim 1:15; Heb 9:12-14; 1 Peter 1:18-20; see FORGIVENESS; REDEMPTION). Although Jesus was crucified by wicked men, his death was according to God’s plan (Acts 2:23). He was under the curse of God as he hung on the cross, but it was the curse he bore on behalf of sinners (Gal 3:13). He who was sinless bore the sins of those who were sinful (2 Cor 5:21; 1 Peter 2:24; see JUSTIFICATION).
He who was not under God’s judgment bore that judgment in place of those who were. He bore the wrath of God so that he might bring guilty sinners back to God (Rom 3:23-25; Col 1:20; 1 John 2:2; 4:10; see BLOOD; PROPITIATION; RECONCILIATION). Christ’s one sacrifice is sufficient to bring complete salvation. It needs nothing to be added to it. It does not need to be repeated. It is a finished work – complete, final, perfect (Heb 9:12,25-26; 10:12-14; cf. John 17:4; 19:30; Rom 8:31-39; Col 2:13-15).
Resurrection and exaltation
Jesus’ death was not for his own sins (for he had none) but for the sins of others. Therefore, death could have no power over him. He rose from death as proof to all that the Father was pleased with the Son’s entire work. Jesus had made full atonement for sin and was the triumphant Lord, Messiah and Saviour (Acts 2:24,36; 3:13; Rom 1:4; 4:25; 1 Cor 15:3-4; Phil 2:8-11; Heb 2:14-15).
The resurrection body of Jesus, however, was not simply a corpse brought back to life. It was a glorified ‘spiritual’ body, belonging to an entirely new order of existence that he brought into being and that all believers will one day share in (1 Cor 15:20-23,42-49). God raised him up and gave him glory, exalting him to heaven’s highest place (Acts 2:32-33; 5:30-31; Eph 1:20-22; 2:6; Heb 1:3; 2:9; 1 Peter 1:21). Although he now existed in a glorified and exalted state, Jesus graciously made a number of appearances to his disciples over a period of forty days after his resurrection (Acts 1:3).
Besides giving them further teaching, he proved to them that although his resurrection was a literal bodily resurrection, his resurrection state was uniquely different from his previous state. He could make himself visible to human eyes, or invisible, as he wished (Luke 24:31,39,43; John 20:19,26-27; see RESURRECTION). When he disappeared from his disciples for the last time, Jesus showed by the means of his departure that he would appear to them no more. He would, however, send the Holy Spirit to be with them, as he himself had been with them. Jesus meanwhile would remain in the heavenly world, exalted in his Father’s presence, till the time came for him to return (Luke 24:50-51; John 16:7; Acts 1:9-11; 2:33; 1 Peter 3:22; see HOLY SPIRIT). Even in his exalted place in heaven, Jesus continues his work on behalf of his people. He claims the blessings of God for them, defends them against the accusations of Satan, and guarantees the continued forgiveness of their sins, all on the basis of his sacrificial death (Rom 8:34; Heb 7:25; 9:24; 1 John 1:7-9; 2:1; see ADVOCATE; PRIEST, sub-heading ‘The high priesthood of Jesus’).
Christ’s return and final triumph
In considering the second coming of Jesus, we should not think of it independently of his first coming. His return and the events connected with it form the climax of what he did through his life, death and resurrection.
All that he achieved at his first coming will find its full and final expression in the events of his second coming: the conquest of sin, death and Satan (1 Cor 15:54-57; Rev 20:10; cf. Heb 2:14); the salvation of sinners (Heb 9:28; cf. Eph 2:8); the gift of eternal life (Matt 25:46; 2 Cor 5:4; cf. John 5:24); the healing of the physical world (Rom 8:18-23; cf. Mark 1:31,42; 4:39); and the establishment of God’s kingdom (Matt 25:34; 1 Cor 15:24-28; cf. Luke 17:21). Jesus’ second coming is that great and final ‘day of the Lord’ that people of both Old and New Testament eras saw as the climax of the world’s history. God will intervene in human affairs and bring his purposes to fulfilment (Zech 14:9; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 2 Peter 3:11-13; see DAY OF THE LORD). Preceding and accompanying this day of the Lord there will be great wonders in the heavens and great distress upon earth. In an event as sudden, as open and as startling as a flash of lightning, Jesus will return in power and glory to save his people and judge his enemies (Matt 24:27-31; 2 Thess 1:7-10; 2:8; Rev 19:11-16). Believers of former generations will be raised from death and, along with believers still alive, will enter a new order of existence in imperishable, spiritual bodies. They will then be with Christ for ever (1 Cor 15:20-23,42-57; Phil 3:21; 1 Thess 4:13-18; see RESURRECTION).
The above characteristics of Christ’s return are expressed in the three Greek words that the New Testament most commonly uses of it. Christ’s return is an apokalupsis, indicating a revealing of himself in majesty and power (1 Cor 1:7; 2 Thess 1:7; 1 Peter 1:7,13; 4:13). It is an epiphaneia, indicating his appearing visibly before people’s eyes (2 Thess 2:8; 1 Tim 6:14; 2 Tim 1:10; 4:1,8; Titus 2:13). It is a parousia, indicating his coming, arrival and presence (Matt 24:3,27,37; 1 Thess 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 2 Thess 2:1,8; 1 John 2:28). Judgment is an inevitable consequence of Christ’s return (Matt 24:30-31,40-42; 25:31-32,46). While unbelievers will have no way of escaping condemnation and punishment, believers can face the coming judgment with confidence. They know that Christ has already delivered them from the wrath of God (Rom 5:9; 1 Thess 1:10; 5:9). Yet, though saved from eternal condemnation, believers are not saved from all judgment. They are answerable to God for the way they have lived on earth, and on that day they will face God and their lives will be examined (Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; 1 Thess 2:19; see JUDGMENT). The second coming of Jesus, therefore, though it is something Christians look forward to (Titus 2:13; see HOPE), is also something that urges them to be holy, diligent and sincere in the way they live now (Phil 1:10; 1 Thess 3:13; 5:23; 2 Tim 4:8; 2 Peter 3:11-13; Rev 22:12).
In addition it makes them more earnest in spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ throughout the world (Matt 24:14; 2 Peter 3:9-10; Rev 22:12-14). Since Jesus will return when least expected, Christians must be ready always (Matt 24:42-44; 1 Thess 5:2-6). Not only believers, but the physical creation also will be redeemed at Christ’s return. The world of nature, which has suffered because of human sin, will receive its full glory. The triumph of Christ’s kingdom is seen in a triumphant Christ reigning with his redeemed people over a redeemed earth ( Rom 8:19-23; 2 Tim 2:12; Rev 5:9-10; 20:4). Finally, having destroyed all enemies and removed all wickedness, Jesus Christ will have the satisfaction of seeing that the victory he achieved at the cross is effectual throughout the universe (Phil 2:10-11; Rev 11:15; 20:10). The Father had entrusted to him the work of overcoming all rebellion and bringing all things into perfect submission to the sovereign God. That work will now have reached its triumphant climax (1 Cor 15:24-28).
JEW
The name ‘Jew’ was not used in Old Testament times before the division of the Israelite kingdom. After the death of King Solomon, the kingdom was split into two parts, the northern part being known as Israel and the southern part as Judah. People of the southern kingdom, though Israelites by blood (since they were descended from Jacob, or Israel) were called Judeans, to distinguish them from those of the northern kingdom. The name ‘Judean’ was later shortened to ‘Jew’ (Jer 34:9). Both northern and southern kingdoms were eventually destroyed and the people taken captive to foreign lands. When the descendants of these captives were later allowed to return to the land of Israel, most of those who returned belonged to the former southern kingdom (the Judeans, or Jews). By this time the name ‘Jew’ was in common use.
It was freely applied to all those now living back in the ancient homeland, without having any specific reference to the tribe they originally came from. In other words, it was used in general as a name for all Israelites (Ezra 6:7; Neh 6:6; Esther 3:6,10; Jer 44:1; Dan 3:8). By the time of the New Testament, the names ‘Hebrew’, ‘Israelite’ and ‘Jew’ were used interchangeably (Matt 2:2; John 1:19; Acts 2:5; Rom 1:16; 2:28-29; 11:1; 1 Cor 9:20; 2 Cor 11:22; Gal 2:14; Phil 3:5; see also HEBREW; ISRAEL; JUDAH, TRIBE AND KINGDOM).
JEZEBEL
By her marriage to King Ahab of Israel, Jezebel helped to join Phoenicia and Israel together in a political and religious alliance. She was daughter of the king-priest of the Phoenician cities Tyre and Sidon, and set out to make Phoenician Baalism the official religion of Israel. Ahab cooperated in the plan and built a royal Baal temple in Israel’s capital, Samaria (1 Kings 16:29-33). Soon, however, Ahab ran into opposition, his opponent being God’s prophet Elijah (1 Kings 18:17- 18). The ministry of the prophets Elijah and Elisha was aimed specifically at preserving the true worship of Yahweh in Israel when Jezebel’s Baalism threatened to wipe it out (see ELIJAH; ELISHA).
Within a short time, Jezebel had killed a large number of God’s prophets and replaced them with several hundred of her own (1 Kings 18:4,19). When, after a contest on Mt Carmel, Elijah defeated and killed the Baal prophets, Jezebel tried to kill him, but he escaped (1 Kings 18:40; 19:1-3). Jezebel demonstrated her total lack of moral uprightness in the way she arranged for Ahab to seize the vineyard of Naboth. She set up people to make false accusations against the innocent Naboth, then, after having him executed, she seized his vineyard (1 Kings 21:1-16).
Elijah announced a horrible judgment upon the dynasty of Ahab, and particularly upon the murderous Jezebel (1 Kings 21:20-25). Even after Ahab’s death, Jezebel still exercised much influence in Israel. For the next fourteen years two of her sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram, ruled as successive kings and promoted her religious policies (1 Kings 22:51-53; 2 Kings 1:17; 3:1-3). She and Jehoram were killed at Jezreel in Jehu’s bloody revolution. Strong-willed to the end, Jezebel was determined to meet her executioner with royal dignity (2 Kings 9:22-37). In New Testament times the church at Thyatira in Asia Minor was troubled by a woman nicknamed Jezebel. She was a false prophetess whose religion, like that of the original Jezebel, was characterized by idolatry and immorality (Rev 2:18-23).
JEZREEL
Among the important centres of northern Israel was the town of Jezreel in the tribal territory of Issachar (Josh 19:17-18). (This town is to be distinguished from the lesser known Jezreel in the tribal territory of Judah to the south; cf. Josh 15:56; 1 Sam 25:43.) Jezreel of the north was situated on the edge of the Plain of Esdraelon, where the plain began to slope down into the Valley of Jezreel. This region was often a battleground in Old Testament times, and Jezreel sometimes became involved in the fighting (e.g. 1 Sam 29:11; see PALESTINE). When, during the time of the divided kingdom, the king of Israel established his capital in Samaria, he also built a summer palace at Jezreel. Ahab later expanded this palace by unjustly seizing the adjoining property belonging to Naboth (1 Kings 21:1-2,16). Ahab’s wife Jezebel, their son Joram and others of the royal household were killed at Jezreel in Jehu’s bloody revolution (2 Kings 8:29; 9:16-37; 10:11; Hosea 1:4-5).
JOAB
It seems that Joab and his brothers were among the several hundred people who joined David during his flight from Saul. The private army that David formed from these people later became the central fighting force in his royal army (1 Sam 22:1-2; 26:6; 30:9; 2 Sam 2:13). (For map covering the region of David’s activities see DAVID.) In the two-year civil war that followed Saul’s death, Joab quickly established himself as David’s military leader (2 Sam 2:28). He was also a close relative of David (1 Chron 2:13-16). When Saul’s former commander, Abner, defected to David, Joab saw him as a threat and murdered him. Joab used the excuse that he was retaliating because Abner had killed his brother in battle. But David saw it as murder and never forgave Joab (2 Sam 2:12-23; 3:23-39; 1 Kings 2:5-6).
Not long after these events, David became undisputed king of Israel. In response to David’s declaration that he wanted to take Jerusalem from its Canaanite inhabitants, Joab led a victorious assault on the city and was rewarded by being appointed commander-in-chief of the Israelite army (1 Chron 11:6; 18:15). He was a clever, brave and loyal soldier (2 Sam 10:6-19; 11:1; 12:26) who usually had David’s interests at heart (1 Sam 12:27-28; 24:2-4). Nevertheless, had had no excuse for cooperating with David in the killing of Uriah (2 Sam 11:6-25). When, as a consequence of David’s wrongdoing, his family started to break up, Joab tried to preserve the dynasty by ensuring that there was a recognized heir to the throne. He considered that the most suitable of David’s sons for the position was Absalom, but Absalom had committed murder and fled to a neighbouring country. Joab therefore worked out a clever plan that enabled Absalom to return from exile without having to stand trial (2 Sam 14:1-24). Once back in Jerusalem, Absalom heartlessly used Joab to pursue his own ambitions (2 Sam 14:28- 33). When Absalom rebelled against David and seized the throne, Joab again upheld David. He brought the rebellion to a swift end by killing Absalom, even though it was against David’s wishes (2 Sam 18:2,5,9-16).
He then rebuked David for his lack of gratitude to those who had saved him (2 Sam 19:1-8). Upon resuming his rule in Jerusalem, David appointed Absalom’s general, Amasa, chief of the army in place of Joab. This was clearly unfair to Joab, who had been loyal to David and won him the victory (2 Sam 19:13). Soon there was another uprising against David. When Amasa proved himself to be a poor leader, Joab murdered him and took control of the army as of old (2 Sam 20:4-10,23). In the palace conflict to decide which son would succeed the ageing David as king, Joab supported Adonijah in opposition to Solomon, who was David’s choice (1 Kings 1:5-8,13,19; 1 Chron 28:5). On becoming king, Solomon executed Joab. A violent death seemed a fitting end for one whose life had been marked by so many acts of violence (1 Kings 2:28-35).
JOASH
See JEHOASH.
JOEL
Unlike most of the other prophets, Joel does not state the period during which he preached. This is no great hindrance to the reader, for the book is largely concerned with just one incident, a severe locust plague. The setting appears to be Jerusalem and the surrounding countryside.
Background and meaning
One possible date for the book is about 835-830 BC, during the reign of the boy-king Joash. This would explain why there is no mention of oppressive enemy nations such as Syria, Assyria and Babylon, which are constantly mentioned in the other prophets, for at that time those nations had not begun to interfere in Judean affairs. It would also explain why Joel makes no mention of the reigning Judean king, for the government was largely in the hands of the priest Jehoiada (2 Kings 11:1-21; 12:1). The prominence of Jehoiada could partly account for Joel’s interest in the temple and its services (Joel 1:9,13; 2:12,15-17).
An alternative suggestion is that the book belongs to the period after Judah’s return from captivity. On this theory the most likely time of writing is either 520-510 BC, after the ministry of Haggai and Zechariah and the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple (Ezra 5:1-2,15), or about 400 BC, a generation or so after the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh 8:1-3,9; 13:30). Joel interpreted the locust plague as God’s judgment on Judah for its sin. He urged the people to repent, confident that God would renew his blessing upon them. God would not only renew their crops but also give them a greater knowledge of himself (Joel 2:12-14,23-27). According to Joel’s view, these events were symbolic of God’s future blessing upon all his people and his judgment upon all his enemies. In New Testament times Peter saw a fulfilment of Joel’s prophecy in the events that resulted from Jesus’ death and resurrection. A new age had dawned, the Spirit had come upon all God’s people, and judgment had become certain for all God’s enemies (Joel 2:28-32; Acts 2:14- 21).
Summary of contents
In very lively fashion, Joel describes the devastating effects of the locust plague, firstly upon the farmers and other country people (1:1-20), then upon the citizens of Jerusalem (2:1-11). He calls the people to gather at the temple and repent (2:12-17), and offers hope for renewed productivity in their fields and vineyards (2:18-27). A far greater blessing, however, will be the gift of God’s Spirit, enabling the people to know and obey him better (2:28-32). The locust plague and its removal picture the greater judgment and greater blessing yet to come (3:1-21).
JOHN THE BAPTIST
God’s purpose for John the Baptist was that he be the forerunner of the Messiah. Even before John was born, God revealed to his parents that he had been specially marked out for this task. Like prophets of a former era, John was to live a life of hardship and self-denial, at the same time preaching a message of repentance to the people of Israel. Those who responded to his message in obedience and faith would thereby show themselves to be the true people of God. They would be ready to welcome the Messiah and so enter his kingdom (Luke 1:13-17,57-66,76-79; Matt 3:2).
Forerunner of the Messiah
People in Israel had long expected that Elijah the prophet would return before the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:5). Jesus pointed out that this ‘Elijah’ was in fact John the Baptist (Matt 11:10-14; 17:10- 13). John preached in the spirit and power of Elijah (Luke 1:17) and shared the harsh existence of Elijah, living in semi-barren regions where he wore rough clothing and ate wild food (Matt 3:4; Luke 1:80; 3:2; cf. 1 Kings 17:5-7; 19:4-9; 2 Kings 1:8; 2:8).
John began his preaching in that region of Palestine where the Jordan River approached the Dead Sea (Mark 1:4-5; Luke 3:2-3; John 1:28). God had called him to be a prophet (Luke 1:76; 7:26; 16:16; 20:6) and he preached after the manner of the Old Testament prophets. He condemned those who thought that their Israelite nationality guaranteed their salvation (Matt 3:7-10; cf. Amos 9:7-8), and denounced the greed, corruption and injustice of Israelite society (Luke 3:10-14; cf. Isa 5:8-23). The only ones who were truly God’s people were those who repented of their sins and demonstrated their sincerity in baptism (Matt 3:1-2; cf. Isa 1:16-20). The baptism that John proclaimed, though important, could not empower people for a new life. That power could come only through a greater baptism, the gift of the Holy Spirit; and that was a gift that only the Messiah could give. John was not the Messiah, but he was clearly preparing the way for the Messiah (Luke 3:3-6,15-17; John 1:6-7,19-28). He announced the kingdom of God (Matt 3:2).
Introducing the Messiah
John and Jesus were about the same age and were related (Luke 1:36), but their backgrounds and upbringing were different. John was the son of a priest and grew up in Judea in the south of Palestine (Luke 1:5-13,39-41,65,80), whereas Jesus was the son of a carpenter and grew up in Galilee in the north (Luke 1:26; 2:51). Nothing has been recorded of what association existed between John and Jesus had during their childhood and youth. However, by the time they were about thirty years of age (Luke 3:23) they were at least familiar with each other’s activities.
John knew enough about Jesus to know that Jesus was the better man and had no need for a baptism for repentance. But Jesus insisted that John baptize him. As a result of that baptism, John knew for certain (through the visible descent of the Spirit upon Jesus) that this one was the promised Messiah (Matt 3:13- 17; John 1:33-34). By his baptism Jesus showed that he was on the side of those who, by responding to John’s baptism, had shown themselves to be God’s true people (see BAPTISM). The followers of John grew into a clearly recognizable group, characterized by devotion and selfdenial (Luke 5:33; John 3:23-25). They spread into regions so far from Jerusalem that many years passed before some of them heard the full message concerning the Messiah of whom John had spoken (Acts 18:24-26; 19:1-5). Yet John was not interested in building a personal following, and he felt well satisfied when his disciples left him to follow Jesus (John 1:35; 3:26-30).
From the old era into the new
In moving widely around the Jordan region, John would have spent some time in areas west of Jordan controlled by Pilate and some time in areas east of Jordan controlled by Herod Antipas (Luke 3:1; John 1:28; 3:23). This brought John into conflict with Herod Antipas, whom he rebuked for marrying the wife of his brother, Herod Philip. Antipas replied by throwing John into prison (Mark 6:17-20; Luke 3:19-20). Shut up in prison, John received only irregular, and possibly inaccurate, reports of Jesus’ ministry.
This made him wonder whether Jesus really was the Messiah he had foretold, so he sent messengers to ask Jesus directly (Luke 7:18-20). Jesus reassured John by pointing out that his works were those that the Old Testament prophets had spoken of when they foretold the messianic age (Luke 7:21-23; cf. Isa 35:5- 6; 61:1-3). Jesus reassured the people also, for he did not want them to lose their respect for John. There was nothing weak or uncertain about John. He did not look for comfort or prestige, but like a true prophet he endured a life of hardship for the sake of God (Luke 7:24-27). John was the last and greatest prophet of the era before Christ. But he did not live to see the fulness of the new era (for he was executed by Herod; Mark 6:21-29). The blessings of the Messiah’s kingdom are such that the humblest believer of this new era is more blessed than the greatest believer of the old (Luke 7:28).
JONATHAN
In the early days of Saul’s kingship, the Israelite army consisted of two main divisions, one under the command of Saul, the other under the command of his eldest son, Jonathan (1 Sam 13:2; 14:49). Early in his career, Jonathan showed his sharp thinking and his courage when he took his armour-bearer and carried out a daring raid that threw the enemy Philistines into confusion. Though it was a risky adventure, it resulted in a notable victory for Israel (1 Sam 14:1-48). When David became a member of Saul’s court and then of his army, he and Jonathan became close friends (1 Sam 18:1-4). David’s victories stirred up Saul’s jealousy and hatred, but Jonathan defended him and intervened on his behalf. He successfully pleaded with his father to stop trying to kill David (1 Sam 19:1-7).
Unknown to Jonathan, Saul renewed his attacks on David (1 Sam 19:8-11). When Jonathan heard about this, he determined to find out Saul’s real intentions towards David (1 Sam 20:1-23). Unlike his father, Jonathan showed no jealousy of David, even when his father reminded him that David was a threat to his own chances of becoming king (1 Sam 20:30-34). Jonathan helped David escape, but neither he nor David plotted against the king.
Their sole purpose was to save David’s life. While remaining loyal to the king, Jonathan reassured David that nothing could change the relationship between them. He knew that David would be the next king, and he would be happy to serve under him as chief minister (1 Sam 23:16-18). Some years later Jonathan was tragically killed in a battle with the Philistines. David’s love for him is seen in the song of remembrance he wrote after his friend’s premature death (1 Sam 31:2; 2 Sam 1:17- 27).
JOPPA
In Old Testament days Joppa was Israel’s only port on the Mediterranean coast. It lay between the plain of Sharon to the north and the land of the Philistines to the south. When timber was brought from Lebanon to be used in the construction of Solomon’s temple, it was floated down from Tyre and Sidon in rafts, received at Joppa, and then taken to Jerusalem (2 Chron 2:16). A similar arrangement was apparently used four hundred years later when Zerubbabel rebuilt the temple (Ezra 3:7). Joppa was the port where Jonah boarded a ship when he tried to flee from God (Jonah 1:3; for map see JONAH). Joppa was one of the first places outside Jerusalem that the apostles visited in the early days of the church. There Dorcas was raised to life (Acts 9:36-43) and there Peter had a remarkable vision that changed his ideas about the evangelization of the Gentiles (Acts 10:1-48). The town still exists today, as part of Tel Aviv, and is known as Jaffa (or Yafo).
JORAM
See JEHORAM
JORDAN
The Jordan River, which formed the boundary along the eastern side of the land of Canaan, rose in the region of Mt Hermon in the north and finished in the Dead Sea in the south. It was an important feature of Palestine’s geography and was of much significance in the history of Israel. For details see PALESTINE, sub-headings ‘Upper Jordan and Sea of Galilee’ and ‘Jordan Valley and Dead Sea’.
JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA
Among the members of the Jewish Council that condemned Jesus to death were at least two who disagreed with the decision. One was Nicodemus (cf. John 7:50-51), the other a man named Joseph who came from the Judean village of Arimathea (Luke 23:50-51; John 19:38-39). Joseph was a just and righteous man, well respected, wealthy, and a follower of Jesus (Matt 27:57; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50). Though he feared the Jews, he was bold enough to ask Pilate for the body of Jesus so that he might give Jesus an honourable burial. With Nicodemus he took the body down from the cross, anointed it with spices, wrapped it in linen and placed it in the tomb that he had prepared for himself (Matt 27:58-60; John 19:38-42).
JOSEPH THE HUSBAND OF MARY
Two lines of descent from David came together in Jesus. The royal line through Solomon and the kings of Judah came through Joseph, the legal father of Jesus, giving grounds for Jesus’ right to the throne of David (Matt 1:1-16). The other line, through another of David’s sons, also led to Joseph (Luke 3:23-31). Possibly, however, the genealogy in Luke is that of Mary, not Joseph. Since the genealogy preserves only the names of the males, Joseph (according to this theory) would be ‘son’ of Heli only because he was married to Heli’s daughter; that is, he would be Heli’s son-in-law. Both Matthew 1:16 and Luke 3:23 emphasize that Joseph was not the natural father of Jesus.
Jesus was conceived in the womb of the virgin Mary by the direct activity of God’s Spirit, without the help of any man. It is understandable that Joseph was called the father of Jesus (John 1:45; 6:42), because legally he was, but Joseph knew that he was not the cause of Mary’s pregnancy. When he thought of breaking the engagement with Mary secretly (for he did not want to embarrass her), God told him that Mary was morally blameless and her pregnancy was miraculous (Matt 1:18-25; cf. Luke 1:26-35).
After the birth, Joseph showed a loving concern for both Mary and Jesus, and a readiness to act promptly when God directed him (Matt 2:13-15; 2:19-23). With Mary he took the baby to Jerusalem for the ceremonies required by the Jewish law (Luke 2:22). Later they settled in Nazareth in the north (Matt 2:23), but they went each year to Jerusalem for the Passover (Luke 2:41). Joseph was a well known carpenter in Nazareth (Matt 13:55) and he taught his carpentry skills to Jesus (Mark 6:3). Apparently he was no longer alive when Jesus engaged in his public ministry, as the Gospel writers do not mention him in references to current members of Jesus’ family (Matt 13:55-56; Mark 6:3; John 19:26-27). The brothers and sisters of Jesus were probably children of Mary and Joseph, born to them once they began sexual relations after the birth of Jesus (Matt 1:25).
JOSEPH THE SON OF JACOB
The story of Joseph is among the best known in the Bible. It spreads over more than a dozen chapters of Genesis and shows how God was fulfilling his promises to Abraham. God had promised Canaan to Abraham and his descendants, but those descendants would be able to take possession of it only when they had sufficient numbers to do so. First of all, therefore, they had to develop as a nation, and the story of Joseph shows how this became possible. It recounts the events that led to their migration to Egypt and their subsequent growth and development. Although, after Joseph’s death, they suffered a period of slavery, in due course they left Egypt and took possession of Canaan (cf. Gen 15:13-16).
From Canaan to Egypt
Joseph was Jacob’s eleventh son but, being Rachel’s firstborn, he soon became Jacob’s favourite (Gen 30:22-24; 33:1-7). By the time Joseph was seventeen, his brothers so hated him that they decided to get rid of him. They sold him to traders who took him to Egypt, though they told their father that a wild animal had killed him (Gen 37:1-36). In spite of his blameless behaviour, Joseph ended up in prison. Because of his good conduct, he was given a position of responsibility that proved to be of benefit to the other prisoners, but he waited in vain for anyone to help him (Gen 39:1-40:23). When at last someone told the king of Joseph’s wisdom, Joseph warned the king of a coming famine and advise him how to deal with it. The king was so impressed that he made Joseph the administrator of the famine relief program, and then governor of all Egypt (Gen 41:1- 45; Acts 7:9-10).
Governor of Egypt
At the time of his appointment as governor, Joseph was thirty years of age (Gen 41:46). He married an Egyptian and they produced two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim (Gen 41:47-52). Egypt alone had made preparations for the famine, with the result that people came from everywhere to buy food. Among these were Joseph’s brothers. Although Joseph recognized them, they did not recognize him (Gen 41:53-42:8). To see if his brothers had changed for the better over the years, Joseph cleverly arranged a striking sequence of events. He worked them into a trap from which they could have easily escaped by sacrificing their brother Benjamin, who was their father’s new favourite. But they refused to forsake Benjamin (Gen 42:9-44:34). Joseph, satisfied that his brothers had experienced a genuine change of heart, told them who he was. He then sent wagons to Canaan to bring Jacob and all his family to Egypt (Gen 45:1-46:34; Acts 7:11-14). Joseph arranged for all Jacob’s family to settle in Goshen in the Nile Delta. There, separated from the Egyptians, they could multiply and develop without their culture or religion being corrupted by the Egyptians (Gen 47:1-12). Meanwhile Joseph continued as governor, and his economic policies saved Egypt from disaster (Gen 47:13-26).
Later events
Before Jacob died, he raised the two sons of Joseph, Manasseh and Ephraim, to equal status with the brothers of Joseph. Manasseh and Ephraim would therefore become heads of tribes in Israel. Joseph, by receiving two tribes instead of one, received the inheritance of the firstborn (Gen 48:1-22; 49:22-26; 1 Chron 5:1-2). When Jacob died, Joseph’s brothers feared he might now have revenge against them. Joseph was saddened by such mistrust and reassured his brothers that he would continue to look after them (Gen 50:1-21). Joseph lived over ninety years in Egypt, but he still believed that Canaan was the land his people would one day possess. Before he died he showed his faith in God’s promises by leaving instructions that when the people of Israel eventually moved to Canaan, they take his remains with them (Gen 50:22-26; Exod 13:19; Heb 11:22). His descendants buried his bones at Shechem, in the tribal area of Ephraim (Josh 24:32).
JOSHUA THE SON OF JEHOZADAK
In 539 BC Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylon and immediately gave permission to the captive Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild Jerusalem and the temple. Chief among those who returned were the governor Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua (or Jeshua) the son of Jehozadak (or Jozadak) (Ezra 2:1-2).
Joint leadership
Under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Joshua, the returned exiles set up the altar soon after they arrived in Jerusalem (Ezra 3:1-2). They laid the foundation of the temple the next year (Ezra 3:8-11), but when opposition discouraged the builders, the work stopped (Ezra 4:1-5). Sixteen years later God raised up the prophets Haggai and Zechariah to stir up Zerubbabel, Joshua and the people to get to work once more on the temple (Ezra 4:24; 5:1-2; Hag 1:1-11). When work restarted, the prophets brought further messages of encouragement to the people through Zerubbabel and Joshua (Hag 1:12-15; 2:1-9). The rebuilding of the temple was a preparation for the coming of the Messiah. When, in anticipation of this Messiah, the Jews conducted a coronation ceremony, the person they should have crowned was Zerubbabel, for he was not only governor but also a Davidic prince in the line of the Messiah (Matt 1:6,12,16). Instead they crowned the priest Joshua, to avoid any action that may have appeared to the Persians as treason. The ceremony emphasized that the joint rule of Joshua and Zerubbabel, the priest and the prince, foreshadowed the rule of the priest-king Messiah (Zech 6:9-14).
Dealing with sin
In a vision that the prophet Zechariah saw, Joshua the high priest was standing before God in dirty garments. Standing beside Joshua was Satan, ready to make the accusation that the people were unclean because of their long exile in idolatrous Babylon. They were therefore no longer fit to serve God or build him a temple. By clothing Joshua in clean garments, God showed that he had forgiven and cleansed his people (Zech 3:1-10). Sadly, the people’s renewed devotion was short-lived. Joshua’s sons did not truly follow God and, like many of their countrymen, married unbelieving non-Jewish women. When rebuked by Ezra, they put away their foreign wives and offered sacrifices for their wrongdoing (Ezra 10:18-19).
JOSHUA THE SON OF NUN
Like Moses, Joshua was born and brought up in Egypt. He became Moses’ chief assistant on the journey from Egypt to Canaan and, when Moses died, became Israel’s new leader and led the people into Canaan. The name Joshua means ‘Yahweh (Jehovah) saves’. Translated via the Aramaic into Greek, the name becomes ‘Jesus’.
Assistant to Moses
Joshua’s leadership qualities became evident soon after the Israelites left Egypt. When some raiding Amalekites attacked the Israelite procession, Moses hurriedly appointed Joshua to form and command a fighting force. Through courage and prayer, Israel won its first battle (Exod 17:8-14). As Moses’ chief assistant, Joshua kept watch when Moses entered God’s presence on Mt Sinai (Exod 24:13) and when Moses spoke face to face with God in his tent (Exod 33:11). Joshua was so loyal to Moses that he wanted Moses to silence two men who prophesied, lest people listen to them and ignore Moses (Num 11:26-29). When Moses sent representatives from the twelve tribes to spy out Canaan, Joshua was the representative from the tribe of Ephraim. Only he and Caleb, the representative from the tribe of Judah, believed that God could give Israel victory over the Canaanites. The people chose to accept the report of the ten unbelieving spies and tried to kill Joshua and Caleb. God announced that Israel would therefore remain in the wilderness for the next forty years, till all those currently over twenty years of age (except Joshua and Caleb) had died, and a new generation had grown up (Num 13:1-16; 14:6-10; 14:26-30).
Conqueror of Canaan
Forty years later, when the new generation was ready to enter Canaan, Moses appointed Joshua as his divinely chosen successor (Num 27:18-22; Deut 31:14; 34:9). Joshua would direct the conquest of Canaan and, with Eleazar the high priest, oversee the division of the land among Israel’s tribes (Num 34:17; Deut 1:38; 3:28; 31:23). After Moses’ death, God gave Joshua special encouragement for the tasks ahead (Josh 1:5-9). Joshua’s proven faith, combined with his long experience as an administrator and army general, enabled him to carry out the work entrusted to him.
He organized the people and sought out information for the advance into Canaan (Josh 1:10-11; 2:1); he ensured that people and priests carried out the rituals God required of them (Josh 3:7-13; 5:2-3); and he submitted totally to God’s directions (Josh 5:13-15). The book of Joshua records how Israel crossed the Jordan River, conquered Canaan and divided the land among its tribes (see JOSHUA, BOOK OF). The entire operation for the conquest and division of Canaan showed Joshua’s courage, faith, obedience and honesty (Josh 6:15-16; Heb 11:30). When he found wilful disobedience among the people, he dealt promptly with the guilty person (Josh 7:10-12,16,25). Victory followed, whereupon Joshua led the Israelites to Shechem, where they renewed their promise of obedience to God and his covenant demands (Josh 8:30-35). Joshua then attacked to the south, but the people of Gibeon saved themselves by tricking the Israelites into making a peace treaty with them. The reason for the Israelites’ mistake was their failure to ask God’s direction; but, having made an agreement, they kept it (Josh 9:14-19). The outcome was that soon they had to defend the Gibeonites against an attack by hostile neighbours, but in doing so they experienced miraculous exhibitions of God’s power (Josh 10:1-14). From this victory Joshua went on to conquer all southern Canaan (Josh 10:28-43), and then northern Canaan (Josh 11:1-15).
A godly administrator
After the conquest of Canaan, the Israelite tribes settled in their respective areas (Josh 14:1). But Joshua had constantly to remind the individual tribes to drive out the Canaanites from the scattered areas they still occupied (Josh 13:1; 17:16-18; 18:3). Joshua himself settled in a district that he had chosen, by God’s permission, within the territory of his own tribe, Ephraim (Josh 19:49-50). Nothing is recorded of Joshua’s life till the occasion of his address to the nation just before his death (Josh 23:1). The people followed God throughout Joshua’s time and the time of those he had trained, showing that he was as strong and godly a leader in civilian affairs as he had been in military affairs (Josh 24:31). In his final address he warned of the dangers of idolatry and challenged the people to maintain their faithfulness to God (Josh 24:14-15). He died at 110 years of age and was buried on his home property (Josh 24:29-30).
JOSIAH
After fifty-five years rule of the wicked Manasseh, plus two years rule of his equally wicked son Amon, Judah’s spiritual condition was the worst it had ever been (see MANASSEH, KING OF JUDAH). Josiah became king when his father Amon was assassinated (640 BC) but, being only eight years old at the time, he was for some years under the direction of government officials (2 Chron 33:25; 34:1). At the age of sixteen he became a believer in the one true God, and at the age of twenty he began religious reforms that lasted many years (2 Chron 34:2-5).
Religious affairs
One possible influence that led Josiah to begin his reforms was the preaching of the prophet Zephaniah (Zeph 1:1). Another prophet, Jeremiah, began his ministry in the early years of Josiah’s reforms (Jer 1:1-2; 3:6). During the evil days of Manasseh, the temple in Jerusalem had been damaged and the law of God forgotten. In the sixth year of Josiah’s reforms, workmen repairing the temple found scrolls of this longforgotten law. Josiah was shocked to find how far Judah had departed from God. He soon learnt that the nation was heading for judgment, but God encouraged him to continue his reforms, so that the people might turn to God and avoid the threatened judgment (2 Kings 22:3-20).
With this encouragement from God, Josiah gathered Jerusalem’s leading citizens together at the temple, where the law was read to them. He gained their support in renewing the nation’s covenant with God and in helping his ongoing reforms (2 Kings 23:1-3). An increasingly confident Josiah then destroyed all false shrines and other idolatrous objects throughout the country, and centralized the nation’s public worship in Jerusalem, where it was under his supervision (2 Kings 23:4-14,24; 2 Chron 34:6-7). He burnt the bones of the false prophets on their altar, after which he destroyed it (2 Kings 23:15- 20; cf. 1 Kings 13:1-3,29-32). Having removed idolatry, Josiah re-established the worship of Yahweh by keeping the Passover. This gave him the opportunity to organize the priests and Levites according to the order set out by David. He wanted to make sure that the entire worship procedure was conducted properly. The nation’s leading officials joined Josiah in providing large numbers of sacrificial animals for the festival. It was the most spectacular Passover ever seen in Jerusalem (2 Chron 35:1-19).
Political affairs
One factor that assisted Josiah in carrying out such wide-sweeping reforms was the decline of Assyria. He was even able to extend his control into areas of the former northern kingdom that Assyria had conquered (2 Kings 23:15,19; 2 Chron 34:6-7). Assyria eventually fell to Babylon in 612 BC. Pharaoh Necho of Egypt, fearing this expansion of Babylonian power, set out to attack Babylon. In doing so he had to pass through areas of Palestine that Judah controlled, so Josiah tried to resist him. The result was that Josiah was killed in battle (609 BC) and Judah fell temporarily under the overlordship of Egypt (2 Kings 23:29-30; 2 Chron 35:20-27). Josiah was only thirty-nine years old when he died (2 Kings 22:1). Those of his people who later suffered under the cruel hand of his son Jehoiakim looked back with gratitude on his compassion and justice (2 Chron 35:25; Jer 22:15-19). Josiah won unqualified praise for his reforms (2 Kings 23:25), but few people were genuinely converted. Idolatrous ideas were so deeply rooted in the people’s hearts that judgment on the nation was inevitable (2 Kings 23:26-27).
JOTHAM
The book of Judges records the story of Jotham the son of Gideon. After Gideon’s death, another son, Abimelech, killed his brothers and, with the help of some worthless men from Shechem, established himself ‘king’. Jotham, who was the only one of Gideon’s sons to escape the massacre, told a parable to warn the Shechemites of the trouble they had brought upon themselves (Judg 9:1-21). His forecast of doom came true when Abimelech’s ambition brought about his own death and the destruction of his supporters (Judg 9:57). About five hundred years later another man named Jotham appears in the Bible story. He was the son of King Uzziah, and helped his father rule Judah when Uzziah became a leper in his later years (2 Chron 26:21). After his father’s death (739 BC), Jotham maintained the policies of national development his father had introduced. Judah continued to enjoy prosperity (2 Chron 27:1-6; see also UZZIAH). Nevertheless, the greed and corruption of Uzziah’s reign continued through the reign of Jotham. The prophets Hosea, Isaiah and Micah denounced the social and religious evils of the self-satisfied people (Isa 1:1; Hosea 1:1; Micah 1:1). (For details of social conditions in Judah during the reign of Jotham see ISAIAH; MICAH.)
JOY
Both Old and New Testaments use a variety of words to express the many aspects of joy, gladness, contentment and rejoicing. Joy is a characteristic of God, and he wants it to be a characteristic that is evident throughout all creation, particularly among his people (Job 38:7; Ps 16:11; 104:31; Luke 2:10,14; John 15:11; Phil 4:4). Gladness and rejoicing are part of the everyday life that God desires for human society. God wants people to enjoy him and all that he has given them for life in this world (Deut 14:26; Eccles 5:18-19; 9:7- 9; Luke 1:14; 15:22-24; 1 Tim 6:17). However, all such enjoyment must be linked with right behaviour and self-discipline (Prov 23:16-21; Amos 6:4-7; Rom 13:13; 14:17; 1 Thess 5:7-8; 1 Peter 4:3).
Expressions of gladness and joy were a feature of public worship in ancient Israel (Deut 12:5-7; Ps 81:1-3; 100:1-2; 150:3-6). They were also a feature of the life of the early church (Acts 2:46-47; 5:41; 8:39; 13:52; Col 3:16). Joy in a special sense becomes the possession of believers when by faith they come into union with Jesus Christ (John 15:4,11). This joy is more than simply a feeling of happiness when all is going well. That sort of joy will be only temporary (Eccles 2:1-11). The joy that Christ gives is something that no circumstances can take away (John 16:22,33; 17:13; Rom 15:13).
It is a quality of peace and strength that enables believers to rejoice even amid trouble and sorrow (Hab 3:17-18; Matt 5:10-12; 2 Cor 6:10; Col 1:24; James 1:2; see PEACE). Sin in the lives of believers can spoil their experience of the joy God has given them. For this reason they must resist sin, along with its accompanying tendency to despondency. They must make a constant and wholehearted effort to be positive and joyful at all times (Phil 4:4; 1 Thess 5:16-18). The more believers grow in their new life in Christ, the more the indwelling Spirit of Christ develops the quality of joy within them (Gal 5:22). This joy is inseparable from faith, love, peace and hope (Rom 5:1-5; 15:13; 1 Thess 1:3,6; Heb 10:34). The fulfilment of their joy will be to meet Christ at his return and enter with him into the full joy of the age to come (Isa 65:17-19; Matt 25:21; Jude 24; Rev 19:7-9). This glorious hope is a further cause for their rejoicing amid present sufferings (Rom 5:2; 8:18,24; 1 Peter 1:6- 8; 4:13; see HOPE).
JUBILEE
Israelites counted their years in groups of seven. Every seventh year was called the sabbatical year (or rest year), because in that year all farmland was rested from normal agricultural activity (see SABBATICAL YEAR). After seven lots of seven years there was an additional sabbath year called the Jubilee, or Year of Restoration (GNB). In that year all land that had changed ownership during the previous forty-nine years returned to its original owner. This ensured the preservation of the just and fair distribution of land that had been made after Joshua’s conquest.
People who became poor could not lose their property for ever, and the rich could not gain control of the country through buying most of the land (Lev 25:8-12). Since all land returned to the original owners in the fiftieth year, the sale price of land had to be reduced from its original value so that it was proportionate to the number of years that remained to the fiftieth year (Lev 25:13-17). If people needed money they could sell their land, but as soon as possible either they or their close relatives had to buy it back (Lev 25:25-28). Laws for the return of land in the year of Jubilee applied only to farming and pastoral land, not to land in walled cities. This was because city land was not used for cultivation and therefore had nothing to do with the agricultural ‘rest’ years (Lev 25:29-34).
JUDAH, SON OF JACOB
Fourth son of Jacob, Judah soon established himself in the family as one who had genuine leadership qualities (Gen 29:31-35; 37:25-27; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28). Concerning his own sons he wanted to establish a strong family to carry on his name and inheritance (Gen 38:1-10). He himself, however, proved to be morally weak and an easy victim of sexual temptation (Gen 38:11-30). Jacob saw clearly that Judah’s tribe would become the leading tribe in the Israelite nation. It would conquer foreign enemies and rule over its brother tribes (Gen 49:8-12). Out of it came the great king David and finally the Messiah Jesus (Matt 1:3,6,16). (See also JUDAH, TRIBE AND KINGDOM.)
JUDAH, TRIBE AND KINGDOM
Even before Judah existed as a tribe, God had marked it out for a position of leadership in Israel (Gen 49:9-10). Both on the journey through the wilderness under Moses and in the conquest of Canaan under Joshua (1240 BC), Judah took the lead (Num 2:9; Judg 1:2). Once Israel settled in Canaan, Judah soon established its prominence among the twelve tribes.
A large and powerful tribe
In the division of Canaan among the Israelite tribes, Judah received the whole of southern Palestine between the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, as far south as the Wilderness of Zin and the Brook of Egypt (Josh 15:1-12). This was the largest of all the tribal areas. It was, in fact, too large to be occupied entirely by the Judeans, so the tribe of Simeon was invited to occupy part of it. Simeon, as a result, had no separate tribal area of its own and was soon absorbed by Judah (Josh 19:1,9). The land occupied by Judah rose west of the Dead Sea into a high central mountain area (Josh 15:48; Luke 1:39), and then fell away through low hill country known as the Shephelah to the Philistine plain on the Mediterranean coast (Josh 10:40-41; 15:20-21,33,47).
The southern portion of Judah was the dry region known as the Negeb (Josh 10:40; 15:19). (For further details of the physical features of Judah see PALESTINE. For some of its important towns see BEERSHEBA; BETHLEHEM; HEBRON; KADESH-BARNEA; KIRIATH-JEARIM; LACHISH. For towns on the coastal plain see ASHDOD; ASHKELON; EKRON; GATH; GAZA. For Judah’s conflict with the Philistines, who occupied the coastal plain, see PHILISTIA.) A natural division of hills and valleys separated Judah from the tribes to the north; the Jordan River and the Dead Sea separated it from the two and a half tribes to the east. Added to this, some jealousy always existed between Judah and the other tribes. During the reign of Israel’s first king, Saul (who was from the tribe of Benjamin), the difference between Judah and the other tribes became so noticeable that people often referred to Judah as distinct from the rest of Israel (1 Sam 11:8; 18:16).
Era of David and Solomon
After Saul’s death (1010 BC), the division between Judah and the other tribes widened. The people of Judah appointed one of their own men, David, as king, but the other tribes appointed Saul’s son, Ishbosheth, as king. For two years the two groups fought with each other, but in the end David’s group won (2 Sam 2:4,8-10; 3:1). For the next five and a half years David reigned in Hebron over the whole of Israel. He then conquered Jerusalem and made it his capital, reigning over all Israel for a further thirtythree years (2 Sam 5:1-5). (For details of David’s plans and purposes in making Jerusalem his capital see JERUSALEM.) Solomon followed David as king of Israel, and further developed David’s plans to make Jerusalem the religious as well as the political centre of the kingdom. In a building program that lasted more than twenty years, he built a magnificent temple, a luxurious palace and other impressive buildings in the national capital. But his policy of forced labour and heavy taxes made him unpopular, particularly with the northerners, whose farm produce and land he gave to foreign creditors to pay for his showpiece city (1 Kings 5:11; 9:1).
Division of the kingdom
When Solomon died (930 BC), his son Rehoboam, apparently aware of the anti-Jerusalem feeling throughout the northern tribes, tried to regain the northerners’ allegiance. His first step was to have his coronation in the northern city of Shechem instead of in Jerusalem (1 Kings 12:1). But it was too late. Rebellion in the north, led by the Ephraimite Jeroboam, had been building up for years, and now the northerners decided to break away from Judah completely. They did so, making Jeroboam their king (1 Kings 11:26,28; 12:16,20). From that time on the ancient nation Israel was split in two – a northern kingdom of ten tribes that continued to be known as Israel, and a southern kingdom of two tribes (Judah and Benjamin) that was known as Judah (1 Kings 11:11-13,29-32).
Judah was the smaller of the two kingdoms, both in area and in population, and it had the poorer country agriculturally. But it had greater political stability. It had an established dynasty, the dynasty of David, and a well fortified capital, Jerusalem. Its people, being mostly from one tribe, were fairly well unified. By contrast the northern kingdom rarely had a strong sense of unity. Reasons for this were the greater number of tribes in the north, the large population of local Canaanites still living in the area, and the natural divisions created by mountains and rivers. Judah was more isolated, but Israel more open to foreign interference.
The kingdom of Judah
For the first sixty years of the divided kingdom, Israel and Judah fought constantly (1 Kings 14:30; 15:7,16), but the main difficulties for both nations came from the false religious practices that grew up among them. Baal worship was always a problem, particularly in the north. (For further history of the northern kingdom see ISRAEL.) The kings Asa and Jehoshaphat carried out reforms in Judah (2 Chron 14:1-5; 17:3-6), but a greater threat to Judah’s religion followed when a particularly evil form of Baalism from the north spread into the south. It was eventually removed, largely through the work of the priest Jehoiada (835 BC; 2 Kings 11:4- 20). In the years that followed, Judah developed agriculturally and commercially to an extent never before experienced. But with rapid growth in wealth came increased greed, corruption, injustice, violence and immorality. The prophets Isaiah and Micah condemned the sinful nation and announced the coming judgment of God (Isa 1:1-4; 5:13-25; Micah 1:1; 2:1-5; 3:9-12; see ISAIAH; MICAH).
Judah began to feel the divinely sent judgment when, through the disastrous policies of the Judean king Ahaz, Assyria began to interfere in Judean affairs. But Assyria’s interference in Israel’s affairs to the north was even more serious. Several of Israel’s kings, and now Ahaz of Judah, had fallen under Assyria’s domination, and maintained their rule only by paying heavy tribute to Assyria (2 Kings 15:17- 20; 16:1-9; 17:1-3). Because of treachery and instability in Israel through a number of rebellions, assassinations and changes of foreign policy, Assyria finally lost patience. In 722 BC it destroyed the northern kingdom and took most of the people into captivity (722 BC; 2 Kings 17:5-6). Isaiah was probably the most important man in Judah during this era. He announced untiringly, to king and people alike, that Judah’s only hope was to trust in God. The good king Hezekiah, who had introduced sweeping religious and political reforms (2 Kings 18:1-8), proved this to be true when God miraculously saved Jerusalem from what seemed certain conquest by the Assyrians (701 BC; 2 Kings 19:34-36; see HEZEKIAH; ISAIAH). The next king, Manasseh, undid the good that his father had done. Under his rule Judah’s spiritual condition became so corrupt that not even the reforms of Josiah and the preaching of Zephaniah could prevent the nation’s collapse (2 Kings 21:1-15; 23:24-27; see JOSIAH; ZEPHANIAH).
Captivity and return
For the final forty years of Judah’s history, the person who most clearly saw where Judah was heading was the prophet Jeremiah. He had a constant battle with kings, priests, government officials and the common people, as he tried to prepare the nation to accept the judgment that must now certainly fall upon it (Jer 21:3-10; see JEREMIAH). Babylon, who had conquered Assyria in 612 BC, took control of Judah in 605 BC. The Judean king, Jehoiakim, at first submitted but later rebelled. The outcome was that Babylon attacked Jerusalem and took most of the nation’s wealth and best people into captivity in Babylon (597 BC; 2 Kings 24:1-17).
Zedekiah was made king, but when he too rebelled, Babylon attacked Jerusalem again. This time it destroyed the city and took most of the remaining people into captivity (587 BC; 2 Kings 25:1-12). The Babylonians appointed a Judean named Gedaliah as governor over the small community of Judeans left in the land. When Gedaliah was killed by some anti-Babylonian rebels, Babylon’s army returned to deal with any possible uprising. Some of the Judeans escaped to Egypt, and most of the rest were captured and taken off to Babylon (582 BC; 2 Kings 25:22-26; Jer 52:30). Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC and gave the captive Jews permission to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their nation. Those who returned were mostly from the tribe of Judah, but since the old distinction between the northern and southern kingdoms no longer existed, the restored nation could be referred to as either Israel or Judah. As a result Israelites in general became known as Jews, the word ‘Jew’ being a shortened form of ‘Judean’ (see JEW). (For the history of this post-captivity period see ISRAEL.)
JUDAS
It seems that, after the treachery of Judas Iscariot in betraying Jesus, the name Judas became unpopular among Christians. Those who already had the name Judas often preferred some other name. For example, Jesus’ group of twelve apostles included a second man named Judas, but when writers mention him they point out that he was the son of a man named James, and not Judas Iscariot. To avoid confusion, this apostle apparently took another name, Thaddaeus (or Lebbaeus) (Matt 10:3; Luke 6:16; John 14:22; see THADDAEUS). One of Jesus’ brothers was named Judas, but on becoming a believer he was known by the shorter name, Jude (Matt 13:55; see JUDE). A prophet named Judas in the Jerusalem church took another name, Barsabbas (Acts 15:22,27). (Concerning Judas the Galilean mentioned in Acts 5:37 see ZEALOT.)
Judas Iscariot
Judas the betrayer was commonly known as Iscariot (meaning ‘man of Kerioth’), after the home town of his father, Simon (Matt 10:4; John 6:71). As treasurer for the group of twelve apostles, Judas had responsibility for funds donated for the poor. It later became evident that he had been stealing some of the money for himself (John 12:5-6; 13:29). Jesus had seen the evil in Judas’ heart long before those final acts of treachery that resulted in Jesus’ crucifixion (John 6:70-71; 17:12). Judas’ criticism of Mary’s anointing of Jesus showed his lack of spiritual insight (John 12:3-8). The other disciples still did not suspect him of disloyalty, even when Jesus told them a betrayer was among them (Matt 26:20-25; John 13:2,21-30). The Jewish leaders had been wondering how to arrest Jesus without creating a riot (Luke 22:1-2), but the defection of one of Jesus’ apostles made their task easier. Judas demanded payment for his part in the plot, and the Jewish leaders agreed (Matt 26:14-16; Luke 22:3-6). The vital information that Judas gave the Jews concerned the secret place where Jesus prayed with his disciples. In the middle of the night, when the people of Jerusalem were asleep, Judas led an armed group of temple guards and Roman soldiers to the place.
His final act of treachery was to identify the one to be arrested by kissing him (Matt 26:47-56; John 18:2-12). Judas gained no satisfaction from his evil work. He knew he had done wrong in helping to crucify an innocent man, but he made no effort to correct the wrong. Instead he committed suicide; though first he tried to ease his conscience by returning the money that the priests had given him (Matt 27:3-5). It seems that Judas went into a field and tried to hang himself, but in doing so he injured himself internally and his stomach burst. When his body was found, the priests took the betrayal money Judas had returned and with it bought the field in his name. Originally known as Potter’s Field, the place was renamed Field of Blood and used as a cemetery for Gentiles (Matt 27:6-10; Acts 1:18-19).
JUDEA
In 63 BC Rome took control of Palestine and made it a province of the Roman Empire. In those days Palestine was known as Judea, meaning ‘land of the Jews’. The name was used sometimes for Palestine as a whole, as for example when Herod the Great governed the region (Luke 1:5). But in general people thought of Palestine as consisting of three sections, the northern known as Galilee, the central as Samaria and the southern as Judea (John 4:3-4). When Herod died in 4 BC, his former territory was divided among his sons, the central and southern parts going to Archelaus (Matt 2:22). Archelaus was so cruel and unjust that in AD 6 the Jews in Judea asked Rome to remove him and rule over them directly. From that time on, the combined Judea-Samaria section was governed by Roman governors and was officially known as the Roman province of Judea.
The administrative centre was Caesarea. Judea had a brief period without Roman governors from AD 41 to 44, when Herod Agrippa I was allowed to rule (Acts 12:1-4,18-23). Apart from that, Roman governors controlled Judea till the destruction of the Jewish state in AD 70. Roman governors of Judea mentioned in the Bible are Pontius Pilate (Luke 3:1; 23:1), Felix (Acts 23:24,33) and Porcius Festus (Acts 25:1-5). The people of Judea were, on the whole, true Jews. They were fiercely proud of their national and religious purity and were devoted to the traditions of their forefathers.
They despised the Galilean Jews, who lived in a region of mixed Jewish-Gentile population (Matt 26:69,73; John 7:41,52), and they despised the Samaritans, who were people of mixed blood and mixed religion (John 4:9; 8:48). Above all they despised Jesus. They never accepted him as many in Galilee did, and finally they crucified him (Matt 23:37). Some of the towns of Judea that feature in the story of Jesus are Bethlehem, Bethany, Bethphage, Emmaus, Jericho and Jerusalem (Matt 2:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 10:30; 24:13). (For further details see separate entries under the names of these towns. For details of the physical features of Judea see PALESTINE.)
JUDGE
When disputes arise between people, it is necessary to have an independent person, a judge, who is competent to decide the matter. In the early days of Israel’s national life, Moses judged all legal disputes, but when this work became too much for one person, he appointed officials to help him (Exod 18:17-26). These were men chosen from the elders of the people, and as the administration of Israel developed they became a clearly recognized official body in the nation (Num 11:14-17; Deut 16:18; 21:2; Josh 8:33). (Concerning the national deliverers whom the book of Judges refers to as judges see JUDGES, BOOK OF.) In their administration of justice, judges were to be strictly impartial, favouring neither the poor nor the rich (Exod 23:2-3,6; Deut 1:16-17; see JUSTICE). Under no circumstances were they to accept bribes (Deut 16:19-20). When cases were too difficult for them, they were to take them to the priests to decide (Deut 17:8-9; 2 Chron 19:8-11).
Despite these laws, in later times Israel’s administration became so corrupt that judges and priests favoured anyone who paid them well (Amos 2:6-7; 5:12; Micah 3:11; Zeph 3:3). They became so biased that they refused a fair hearing to anyone whom they did not like (Mark 14:55-56; John 7:51). Disputes may sometimes arise in the church, but Christians should not take fellow believers before civil judges to settle their disagreements. Such matters should be settled by spiritual people within the fellowship. Christians should be prepared to suffer wrong rather than force their rights to the extent of creating lawsuits with other believers (1 Cor 6:1-7). Christians must be prepared to forgive, and this forgiveness must extend to opponents who are openly anti-Christian (Matt 5:10-11,38-42). Cases may arise, however, where Christians feel they should demand their legal rights in order to clear Christianity of false accusations (Acts 16:36-39; 22:25; 25:10-11). (See also JUDGMENT.)
JUDGMENT
Judgment has many aspects. It may concern legal procedures and announcements, or it may concern private acts of examining, discerning or criticizing. It is something that people do and something that God does. It takes place in the lives of people now and will take place in their encounter with God at the end of the age.
God the judge
As creator of the human race and ruler of the universe, God is the supreme judge (Gen 18:25; Ps 67:4; 94:2; 96:13; John 8:50; Heb 12:23). His judgment is always just because it is according to his own perfect standards, but it is also mixed with mercy (Ps 9:8; 36:5-6; 89:14; Rom 2:12-16; 2 Tim 4:8; James 2:13; Rev 16:5; see MERCY). God’s judgment is not merely another word for his condemnation and punishment. True judgment involves both discernment and action, and the two are inseparable. First the judge makes a distinction between what is right and what is wrong, then on the basis of his findings he takes action. The purpose of that action is to condemn the person who is wrong and vindicate the person who is right (Deut 1:16-17; 16:18-20; 1 Kings 3:9,28; Jer 5:28; Ezek 7:27). For this reason persecuted believers in Old Testament days often looked forward to God’s judgment.
Though downtrodden, they knew they were in the right, but because of the corruption of the courts they had no way of gaining a hearing and therefore no chance of getting justice. They longed for the day when God would act in true judgment, righting the wrongs, declaring them to be right, and sentencing their opponents to punishment (Ps 7:6-8; 9:8,12; 10:2,12,17-18; 82:1-4; see JUSTICE). Persecuted believers in the New Testament era could likewise long for the day when God would intervene in judgment, bringing relief to them and punishment to their persecutors (2 Thess 1:4-8; Rev 6:10; 11:18). Christ’s death makes the judgment and condemnation of evildoers certain, because by that death Satan himself was judged and condemned (John 12:31-33; 16:8-11).
Everyday judgments
Making judgments between right and wrong is part of the process of living (Luke 7:43; 12:57). This is particularly so in the case of Christians who, having an understanding of the mind of God, are better able to judge between the good and the evil (John 7:24; 1 Cor 2:15-16; Heb 5:14). In the church they must make judgments concerning what is said (1 Cor 10:15; 14:29; 1 Thess 5:20-21) and what is done (Acts 15:19; 1 Cor 5:3,12; 6:1-3). When exercising this judgment, Christians must first of all judge themselves, to make sure they are not guilty of the things concerning which they accuse others. God will judge them according to the standard they use to judge others (Matt 7:1-5; Rom 2:1-3).
Therefore, they must exercise strict selfexamination and self-correction, otherwise they may experience God’s judgment upon them in the form of various sufferings (1 Cor 11:28-32; Heb 12:6; see CHASTISEMENT). There are some things, particularly in the lives of others, concerning which Christians should not make judgments at all. In such cases God is the only one capable of making right judgments (1 Cor 4:3-5; James 4:11-12). They should not be harshly critical of those of weaker faith, but should concentrate on strengthening them (Rom 14:3-4,13).
Jesus Christ the judge
The purpose of Jesus’ first coming was not to be a judge but to be a saviour; not to condemn sinners but to save sinners (John 3:17; 12:47). It is at his second coming that Jesus will carry out God’s work of judgment (Matt 25:36-41; John 5:22,26-30; 2 Cor 5:10; 2 Thess 1:7-8; 2 Tim 4:1). Although Jesus’ first coming was not for the purpose of judgment, it did, in a sense, result in judgment. When people faced him they had to make a decision either to accept him or reject him; and the decision they made was their own judgment on themselves. It determined whether they would be saved or condemned (John 3:19; 9:39; cf. Rom 1:24,26,28). People who considered themselves good, who heard Jesus’ teachings and saw his mighty works yet deliberately rejected him, condemned themselves. They would suffer greater punishment than those whom they considered wicked but who had never heard of Jesus (Matt 11:20-24; Mark 12:40; Luke 12:47-48; John 9:39-41).
Final judgment
All people will one day stand before Christ, the supreme judge. This includes those who are living at Christ’s return and those who have died throughout the thousands of years of the world’s history (Matt 10:15; 25:31-32; Acts 10:42; 17:31; Rom 14:10; Heb 9:27; 1 Peter 4:5). Because no one knows when that judgment will be, people should live in a state of constant readiness for it (Matt 24:36,42-44). At that judgment each person’s behaviour will be judged, even hidden actions and secret thoughts, because such works are evidence of what a person really is (Matt 12:33-37; 16:27; Rom 2:6,16; 1 Cor 4:5; 2 Cor 5:10; Rev 22:12). Being perfect in holiness, God cannot treat evil as if it does not matter. His love for all that is right is so strong that he reacts against all that is wrong in righteous anger and holy wrath (Rom 1:18; 2:5; Eph 5:6; Rev 6:17; see HELL; PUNISHMENT).
As far as believers are concerned, this wrath has fallen on Jesus Christ. Through him believers have the forgiveness of their sins and so escape the wrath that is to fall on sinners at the final judgment (Rom 3:24-26; 5:9; 2 Cor 5:21; Eph 1:7; 1 Thess 1:10; 5:9; see FORGIVENESS; JUSTIFICATION; PROPITIATION). Since Christ has borne their sin and brought them into a right relationship with God, believers can face God’s judgment with confidence (Rom 8:33; 1 John 4:17). They do not fear condemnation, because once they are ‘in Christ’ there can be no condemnation (John 3:18; 5:24; Rom 8:11). Since their names are in the book of life, they have no fear of the judgment of death (Rev 20:11-15; cf. Luke 10:20; Phil 4:3; Rev 21:27). This confidence does not mean that believers will escape all judgment. There will be an examination of their lives and works that will reveal whether they have lived for God or for themselves; whether they have followed God’s standards or the standards of the world. That examination will determine the reward or rebuke they will receive (Rom 14:10; 1 Cor 3:8-15; 2 Cor 5:10; see HEAVEN; REWARD).
JUSTICE
Throughout the Bible, justice is closely connected with righteousness. Both words have a breadth of meaning in relation to character and conduct, and both are commonly concerned with doing right or being in the right (see RIGHTEOUSNESS). God, the sovereign ruler of the universe, is perfect in justice (Gen 18:25; Deut 32:4; Rev 15:3). At the same time he is merciful. Sinners can have hope only because of the perfect harmony of justice and mercy within the divine nature (Exod 34:6-7; Zeph 3:5; cf. Job 4:17; Mal 3:6-7).
There is no way that sinners can bring themselves into a right relationship with a just and holy God, but God is merciful to them. Through Jesus Christ, God has provided a way of salvation by which he can bring repentant sinners into a right relationship with himself, yet be just in doing so (Rom 3:26; see JUSTIFICATION). In addition to the justice that is evident in God’s way of salvation, justice should be evident in the common affairs of human society. This is the aspect of justice that the present article is chiefly concerned with. The perfect expression of justice in governing human society is seen in the authority exercised by Jesus the King-Messiah (Isa 9:7; John 5:30; Acts 22:14; see KING). But God wants justice in the operations of all earthly governments, and likewise in private dealings between individuals (Deut 16:18- 20; 25:13-16).
Basic concerns
Since people exist in God’s image (Gen 1:27), there is within them an awareness of things being right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust. The law of God is, as it were, written on their hearts (Rom 2:14-15). Though sin has hindered people’s understanding and dulled his consciences, the law of God remains within them. This unwritten law is what makes it possible for them to know what justice is and to draw up law-codes to administer justice in society. The ancient Hebrew law-code demonstrates how the universal and timeless principles of justice can be applied to the cultural and social habits of a particular people and era.
Moses’ law, given by God himself, sets out the sort of justice that God requires (Deut 16:18; 32:44-47). Justice must be the same for all, rich and poor alike (Exod 23:3,6-7; Deut 1:15-17). Laws must not be designed to suit the people of power and influence, but must protect the rights of those who can be easily exploited, such as foreigners, widows, orphans, debtors, labourers and the poor in general (Exod 21:1-11; 22:21-27; 23:6-12; Deut 14:28-29; 15:11). Also penalties must fit the crime, being neither too heavy nor too light (Exod 21:23-25; see PUNISHMENT). Although the history of Israel mentions many kings, judges and other administrators who upheld such principles of justice (2 Sam 8:15; 23:3-4; Ps 101:1-8; Isa 33:15-16; Jer 22:15), it also mentions many who ignored them (1 Sam 8:3; 2 Kings 21:16; Eccles 5:8; Isa 5:23; Jer 22:17; see RULER). In both Old and New Testament times godly people were fearless in condemning injustice, whether committed by civil authorities or religious leaders. Civil power gives no one the right to do as he likes, and religious exercises are no substitute for common justice (Isa 1:14-17,23; 59:14-15; Amos 5:11-12,21-23; Micah 7:3; Mark 11:15-17; 12:40; Luke 6:25; 16:19-25; James 5:1-6).
Influence for good
God’s way of dealing with the sinfulness of human society begins not with changing the social order, but with changing individuals. Those individuals, however, are part of society, and they will help change society as they promote the values of life they have learnt through coming to know God (Matt 5:13,16; 1 Cor 7:21-24; Eph 4:17-24; 5:8-11). Genuine moral goodness includes within it a concern to correct social injustice. This involves not merely condemning evil, but positively doing good (Isa 1:17; Amos 5:15,24; Micah 6:8; Matt 23:23; Luke 3:10-14; Col 4:1; James 1:27).
Political conditions vary from one country to another, and these will largely determine the extent to which God’s people can actively try to persuade the government to improve social justice. Much depends on what rights citizens have to choose their government and influence its decisions (see GOVERNMENT). But no matter what kind of government they live under, God’s people should always work to promote values of human dignity (cf. Ps 8:5-8). In so doing they may undermine unjust practices and eventually see them removed (Eph 2:13-16; 5:25; 6:5-9; Philem 16; see RACE; SLAVE; WOMEN; WORK). No government, however, can relieve them of their personal responsibility to help the disadvantaged in society (Lev 25:35-40; Isa 58:6-7; Matt 5:9; 25:34-36; Luke 10:30-36).
Bearing with injustice
Christians may suffer injustice in the form of discrimination and even persecution, both from governments and from citizens. Like Jesus they must accept any such opposition bravely and not try to retaliate (Rom 12:19-21; 1 Peter 2:15,21-23; 3:13; 4:16; see PERSECUTION). There may be cases where they claim their rights in support of those principles of justice that government officials are supposed to administer (Acts 16:35-39; 22:25; 25:10-11), but they should not use their rights for selfish purposes. When Jesus told his followers that they were not to demand ‘an eye for an eye’, he was not undermining the basis of civil justice (which does demand ‘an eye for an eye’ and positively ‘returns evil for evil’ by imposing a penalty to fit the offence). Rather Jesus was telling his followers that the spirit ruling in their hearts must not be the same as that which operates in a code of legal justice. God’s people must always be prepared to sacrifice their rights and even do good to those who harm them (Matt 5:38- 42; 1 Cor 6:7-8; Phil 2:4; cf. 1 Cor 9:15).
JUSTIFICATION
The English words ‘justification’ and ‘righteousness’ are different parts of the same word in the original languages of the Bible. This applies to the Hebrew of the Old Testament and the Greek of the New (see also RIGHTEOUSNESS).
Meaning of ‘justify’ in the Bible
Most commonly the Bible uses the word ‘justify’ in what might be called a legal sense. The picture is that of a courtroom where the righteous person is the one whom the judge declares to be right. The person is justified. In other words, to justify means to declare righteous, to declare to be in the right, to vindicate. It is the opposite of to condemn, which means to declare guilty, to declare to be in the wrong (Deut 25:1; Job 13:18; Isa 50:7-8; Matt 12:37; Luke 18:14; Rom 8:33). Those who try to show that they are in the right are said to be trying to justify themselves. They are trying to declare themselves righteous (Job 32:2; Luke 10:28-29; 16:14-15). They may even go to the extent of condemning God in order to justify themselves, declaring God to be wrong and themselves to be right (Job 40:8).
It is in this sense of declaring someone to be right or wrong that the Bible may speak of God as being justified. People acknowledge that he is in the right and that his judgments are correct (Ps 51:4; Luke 7:29; Rom 3:4; cf. Rev 16:5). Some may argue that to justify means to make righteous (cf. Rom 5:19 RSV), but if such is the case it is important to understand what is meant by being ‘made’ righteous. People are not made righteous in the sense that a piece of metal placed in a fire is ‘made hot’. They are made righteous only in the sense of being declared righteous. They are put in a right relationship with God (Rom 5:19 GNB). The word has to do with a legal pronouncement, not with changing people from one thing to another by placing some new moral power within them (Rom 4:1-3; 5:17-19; Phil 3:9). Just as condemn does not mean ‘make wicked’, so justify does not mean ‘make good’. Nevertheless, one result of the justification of believers is that their lives are changed so that righteousness (in the sense of right behaviour), not sin, becomes the chief characteristic (Phil 3:9-10; James 2:17-23; 1 Peter 2:24; 1 John 3:7; see SANCTIFICATION).
Justification by faith
The fullest explanation of justification is in the writings of Paul. There the teaching centres on God’s great act of salvation by which he declares repentant sinners righteous before him. Instead of having the status of those who are guilty and condemned, sinners now have the status of those who are right with God. God brings them into a right relationship with himself, giving them a right standing before him (Rom 5:1-2; 8:33). This is entirely an act of God’s grace, for no one can have a right standing before God on the basis of personal good deeds. Even a person’s best efforts to keep the law will not help. Since all are sinners and under God’s condemnation, there is nothing anyone can do to gain acceptance with God (Ps 143:2; Rom 3:28; 9:31-32; Gal 2:16).
God accepts people not because of anything they do, but solely because of his mercy (Isa 55:7; Micah 7:18; Rom 3:24; Eph 2:8). However, this gracious work of justification takes place only in those who trust in God. It is through faith that people are justified; more specifically, through faith in Jesus Christ. Christ has done the work and they accept the benefits of that work by faith (Rom 1:17; 3:22,28; 4:2-5; 5:1; Gal 2:16; 3:11; see FAITH; GRACE). The basis of God’s merciful act of justification is the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Rom 3:24-25; 4:23-25; 5:9,17-19; Gal 2:21). God now sees believers as ‘in Christ’ and therefore he declares them righteous. And those whom God declares righteous are righteous – not in the sense that they are perfect people who cannot sin any more, but in the sense that God gives them a righteousness that is not their own, the righteousness of Christ. God accepts believing sinners because of what Christ has done. Jesus Christ becomes, as it were, their righteousness (1 Cor 1:30; 2 Peter 1:1).
Justification and substitution
Although the word ‘justification’ tells us that God declares sinners righteous, it does not tell us the hidden mysteries of divine activity that make it possible for God to do this. The mysteries of God’s will and the wonders of his salvation are in some ways beyond human understanding. But since justification is concerned with the processes of law, a further illustration from the law court may suggest the way God has worked. In this courtroom scene, God is the judge and sinners are on trial (Rom 2:2,5-6; 3:23). God loves them and wants to forgive them (1 John 4:16; 2 Peter 3:9), but his love requires that he act justly (i.e. righteously). If a judge acquitted the guilty merely because they were people he liked, he would be unjust. He might claim to be loving, but his love would be no more than an irrational emotion divorced from moral justice and righteousness. True love, by contrast, is so zealous for the other person’s well-being that it reacts in anger against all that is wrong (cf. Heb 12:6).
God is love and wants to forgive sinners, but because he is a God of love he cannot ignore sin or treat it as if it does not matter. His act of forgiveness, if it is based on love, will involve his dealing with sin. Being a God of love, God must punish sin, but at the same time (being a God of love) he provides a way whereby sinners need not suffer the punishment themselves.
He has done this by taking human form in the person of Jesus Christ, living with sinners as a fellow human being in their world, and then, without himself being a sinner, taking sin’s punishment on their behalf (Rom 3:24; 5:9; 2 Cor 5:18). God is both the judge and the one against whom people have sinned, but at the same time he is the one who bears the penalty of their sin. He forgives sinners only at great cost to himself (John 3:16; 2 Cor 8:9; see SACRIFICE). Jesus died in the place of, or as the substitute for, guilty sinners (1 Peter 2:24). Whereas Adam’s sin brought death, Christ’s death brings life (Rom 5:15,18). Being fully human, Jesus could be a substitute for his fellow human beings, but only because he was sinless and completely obedient. He fulfilled all God’s righteous requirements under the law (Matt 3:15; Phil 2:8; 1 Peter 2:22; 1 John 3:5). One who broke God’s law would be under condemnation himself and could not take the place others (Gal 3:10). Jesus, however, kept God’s law perfectly.
He was absolutely righteous in the fullest moral sense of the word, and so was able to bear the law’s punishment on behalf of those who had broken it (Gal 3:11-13; 4:4-5). When he died, the sinless Jesus suffered the punishment that sin deserved. ‘He bore our sins’ (1 Peter 2:24). Because of the death of Christ, God can now forgive repentant sinners and accept them as righteous before him. Believers are now in a right relationship with God, because Christ is in a right relationship with God (2 Cor 5:21). God’s justice and God’s mercy operate in harmony, because both are outworkings of his love. His justice is satisfied in seeing sin punished, and his mercy flows out in seeing sin forgiven. In his love God justifies guilty but repentant sinners, yet he does so justly and righteously (Rom 3:26; 4:5; see also PROPITIATION).
Justification and forgiveness
God’s forgiveness is more than what people usually mean when they talk of forgiveness. It is more than merely the removal of hostility or the ignoring of wrongdoing. When God forgives sinners, he also justifies them, bringing them into a right relation with himself (Rom 5:6-11). God not only removes condemnation, he also gives righteousness (Rom 4:6-8,22; 5:17,19; 2 Cor 5:19,21; Phil 3:9).
Forgiveness is something that believers continue to be in need of because they are still likely to sin (Matt 6:12); justification is a once-for-all act, a declaration by God that he accepts them in his Son (Rom 5:1-2). The forgiveness that believers need day by day is concerned not with the basic work of justification, but with their daily enjoyment of fellowship with God. Although the penalty of sin has been paid, the evil effects of sin are still in the world and believers cannot escape them. Their failures may disappoint themselves and God, but as they confess those failures they are assured of God’s forgiveness (1 John 1:7,9; see CONFESSION; FORGIVENESS). Their justification, however, is never in question. Christ’s death deals with sin’s penalty for all believers, whether they belong to generations past, present or future. In like manner it deals with the penalty for all the sins of each individual believer, whether those sins be in the past, present or future Rom 3:22-26; Heb 9:15).