OATH
According to Hebrew thought, when people took an oath they called down a curse upon themselves if they were not telling the truth (Mark 14:71) or if, after making a promise, they did not keep their word (2 Sam 3:8-10). In swearing by the name of God, they were inviting God to take decisive action against them should they be false to their oath (1 Sam 19:6; 2 Kings 2:2; Jer 42:5; Ezek 17:18-19; see CURSE). There were various rituals that people followed in swearing oaths. Where two parties bound themselves to a contract by oath, they sometimes carried out a ritual where they passed between portions of slaughtered animals, calling down the fate of the animals on themselves should they break their oath (Jer 34:18; cf. Gen 15:9-20).
A person might, in swearing an oath, raise one hand above the head or, if swearing to another, place one hand under the other person’s thigh (Gen 24:2-3; Deut 32:40). People could swear oaths before local judges or at the sanctuary altar (Exod 22:10-11; 1 Kings 8:31). A special ritual was available when a woman was suspected of adultery and she wanted to swear her innocence (Num 5:11-31). When Israelites swore by the name of God, they were to be careful not to swear falsely (Lev 19:12).
Under no conditions were they to swear by the name of a false god (Amos 8:14). If they swore a rash oath and later regretted it, they could ask forgiveness through presenting a guilt offering and making any compensation that may have been necessary (Lev 5:4-6; 6:5; cf. 1 Sam 14:24-29). Even God sometimes bound himself by an oath; for example, in his covenant promises to Abraham (Gen 15:5-20; 22:16-17; Luke 1:68-73; Heb 6:13-14), to David (Ps 89:34-36; Acts 2:30), to the messianic king (Ps 110:4; Heb 7:15-22,28), and to his redeemed people (Heb 6:16-17). Although he had no need to take an oath (since his word is always sure), in his grace he confirmed his promise by an oath, so that believers might be doubly certain of their ultimate salvation (Heb 6:17-20). Wrong practices developed among the Jews concerning the taking of oaths. Some considered that if, in swearing an oath, they did not actually use the name of God, they were not bound by that oath. They felt no guilt if they swore ‘by heaven’, ‘by earth’, ‘by Jerusalem’ or ‘by the head’ and then broke their promise, for such oaths did not use God’s name. Jesus told them that if they were truthful and honest in all their day-to-day behaviour, they would not feel the need to swear oaths at all. Everything a person says should be true and straightforward (Matt 5:33-37; 23:16; James 5:12).
OBEDIENCE
Since God is the Creator and Lord of the universe, people should obey him (Deut 4:35-40). To those who obey him, he promises blessing; to those who disobey him, cursing (Deut 11:27-28; 27:10; Josh 5:6). Obedience means to hear God’s voice, accept his authority and do what he says (Exod 15:26). Disobedience means to ignore God’s voice, reject his authority and not do what he says (Jer 7:24).
Adam’s disobedience brought disaster upon the human race, but Christ’s obedience (an obedience throughout life even to death) brings salvation (Rom 5:19; Phil 2:8; see also SIN). God commands all people everywhere to repent and believe the gospel (Mark 1:15; Acts 17:30; 1 John 3:23). Therefore, faith in Christ is obedience; unbelief is disobedience (Acts 6:7; 2 Thess 1:8; Heb 5:9; 1 Peter 4:17). Having exercised faith in Christ, true believers will give clear evidence of this by lives of constant obedience to God (1 Peter 1:14-16; 1 John 5:1-3). Religious exercises are never a substitute for obedience to the commands of God. If people say they love God but deliberately disobey his Word, they deceive themselves.
Love for God leads to obedience, not disobedience (1 Sam 15:22; Luke 22:42; John 14:15; 15:10,14-15). If people develop the habit of obeying God, they will become true servants of righteousness and therefore true servants of God. By contrast, if they develop the habit of obeying the sinful human nature, they will become servants of sin and therefore useless to God (Rom 6:12-18). Christians have a responsibility to submit to the various kinds of authority that God has established in human society. In the family, children are to obey their parents (Eph 6:1; Col 3:20). In the sphere of work, employees are to obey their employers (Eph 6:5; Col 3:22). In any community or nation, people are to obey the laws of that community or nation (Rom 13:1; Titus 3:1; 1 Peter 2:13). In the church, Christians are to obey their leaders (Phil 2:12; 1 Thess 5:12; Heb 13:7). In any sphere of life, people with authority may at times command Christians to do something that is contrary to the teachings of God’s Word. In such cases, Christians must be prepared to obey God rather than submit to anti-God regulations, even though their actions may bring unwelcome consequences upon themselves (Acts 5:29,40).
OFFERING
See GIVING; SACRIFICE.
OIL
In most cases the oil that the Bible mentions is olive oil. Olive trees were grown extensively in Palestine, and Israel exported oil to other countries (1 Kings 5:11; Ezek 27:17; Hosea 12:1). Other fruits and plants were also a source of oil. Workers obtained the oil by crushing the fruit, flowers or leaves. This was sometimes done through grinding the substance, using either a thick stick in a bowl or a stone roller in a hollowed out rock. Sometimes the oil was trodden out in a press, other times squeezed out from a sack by twisting it with sticks (Exod 27:20; Deut 33:24; Micah 6:15).
People used oils in the preparation of food (Exod 29:2; Lev 2:4; 1 Kings 17:12-14), as fuels for lamps (Exod 27:20; Zech 4:2-3,12; Matt 25:3-4), as medicines and ointments (Isa 1:6; Luke 10:34), as cosmetics (2 Sam 14:2; Esther 2:12; Ps 104:15; Song of Songs 1:12; 5:5) and for rubbing on the body to bring soothing and refreshment (Ruth 3:3; 2 Sam 12:20; Amos 6:6; Luke 7:37-38; John 12:3). The use of oil in anointing the sick may have had some medicinal purpose, but its chief significance may have been symbolic, demonstrating faith (Mark 6:13; James 5:14). The custom of anointing a person’s head with oil was an ancient way of showing the person honour (Mark 14:3). This was particularly so when a host welcomed a special guest (Ps 23:5). On festive occasions anointing contributed to the joy and merriment of the occasion. As a result oil, like wine, became a symbol of rejoicing (Ps 45:7; 104:15; Isa 61:3; Joel 1:10).
Besides being widely used in Israel’s everyday life, oil was frequently used in its religious rituals. It was part of some sacrifices (Exod 29:2,40; Lev 8:26; Num 6:15; 7:19), was offered as both firstfruits and tithes (Exod 22:29; Deut 12:17), was used as fuel for the tabernacle lamp (Exod 27:20) and was put on people in certain ceremonies (Lev 14:10-18). Oil was used to anoint priests, kings and at times prophets, to symbolize their setting apart for God’s service and their appointment to office (Exod 28:41; 1 Sam 10:1; Ps 89:20-21; 1 Kings 1:39; 19:16; Zech 4:11-14). It was used also to anoint things that were set apart for sacred use, such as the tabernacle and its equipment (Exod 40:9-11). The oil used to anoint the priests and the tabernacle was prepared according to a special formula, which was not to be used for any other purpose (Exod 30:23-33; cf. Ps 133:2). (See also ANOINTING; SPICES.)
OLIVE
Olive trees, both wild and cultivated, were among the most common trees of Palestine (Deut 8:8; Judg 15:5; 1 Chron 27:28; Luke 22:39). They grew also in Mesopotamia and other places in the region (Gen 8:11). The trees grew to about six metres in height, and although their timber was of no use in building construction, it could be used to make furniture and ornamental articles (1 Kings 6:23,31). The Israelites used branches of olive trees to help make shelters for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). Mostly, however, people grew olive trees for their fruit, which could be crushed to produce oil (Exod 27:20; Lev 2:4; 2 Kings 18:32; Micah 6:15; see OIL).
Farmers harvested the olives by shaking or beating the tree so that the fruit fell to the ground. They then collected the fruit in baskets (Deut 24:20; Isa 17:6; 24:13; Amos 8:2). To obtain higher quality fruit and larger harvests, they sometimes grafted branches from good quality trees on to wild trees. To graft branches from wild trees on to good trees was ‘contrary to nature’ (Rom 11:17-24). In the symbols and pictures of the Bible, the olive tree had a variety of meanings. It was a symbol of peace (Gen 8:10-12), fruitfulness (Ps 128:3-4), freshness (Ps 52:8), pleasantness (Jer 11:16), beauty (Hosea 14:5-7), God’s Spirit (Zech 4:1-6), God’s family (Rom 11:17-24) and God’s witnesses (Zech 4:11-14; Rev 11:3-4).
ONESIMUS
In New Testament times, households often included slaves, and many of these slaves became Christians. One slave who became a Christian was Onesimus. Onesimus had worked in Colossae for a man named Philemon, but he ran away and came to Rome. There he met Paul and was converted. Paul knew Philemon, so when Onesimus decided to return to his master, Paul wrote a letter to Philemon, urging him to forgive Onesimus and receive him back (Philem 10-19; for details see PHILEMON).
ORDAIN
Though a common word in the traditional language of the church, ‘ordain’ is not common in the Bible. It is not present at all in most modern versions. The word usually means ‘appoint’, as for example when Jesus appointed apostles (Mark 3:13-14; John 15:16; see APOSTLE), and the apostles appointed church leaders (Acts 6:3,6; 14:23; see DEACON; ELDER). People were not to make such appointments hastily. They had to have confidence that those appointed possessed the God-given gifts for the tasks, and they expressed that confidence through the ceremony of laying on hands (Acts 6:6; 1 Tim 4:14; 5:22; see LAYING ON OF HANDS).
ORNAMENTS
Just as it is natural for people to want to make themselves attractive by the clothes they wear, so it is natural that they should want to add to their appearance by wearing ornaments (Ezek 16:10-13). In ancient times valuable ornaments were also used for making payments or investing wealth (Gen 24:22,53; Exod 11:2; 35:22; 2 Sam 1:24). People wore ornaments especially on important or joyous occasions (Isa 61:10; Jer 2:32). At times certain people received ornaments to indicate their honoured status in a household or society (Gen 41:42- 43; Esther 3:10; Luke 15:22). But excessive adornment was condemned. Such extravagance was usually the characteristic of prostitutes (Jer 4:30) or the haughty and corrupt women of the upper classes (Isa 3:18-23). Good conduct, not lavish adornment, is what makes people truly attractive (1 Tim 2:8-10; 1 Peter 3:3-5; see also DRESS).
ORPHAN
God has a special concern for orphans (Deut 10:18; Ps 68:5), and he wants his people to have similar concern (Deut 26:12; James 1:27). In circumstances where orphans are left poor or defenceless, people who are cruel or greedy can easily take unfair advantage of them (Exod 22:22; Job 24:3,9; Isa 10:2; Jer 5:28). Although God will punish the oppressors (Deut 27:19; Ps 10:12-15; Mal 3:5), he expects his people to defend the oppressed against injustice (Deut 24:17; Job 29:12). He also expects them to help provide the needy with the necessities for everyday living (Deut 16:14; Job 31:16-17).