PALESTINE
Palestine is the name commonly used for the land that in ancient times was known as Canaan. When the Israelites first occupied Canaan, they met some of their strongest opposition from the Philistines, the people from whom Palestine takes its name (see CANAAN; PHILISTIA). The natural boundaries of the land were the Mediterranean Sea in the west, the Jordan River in the east, the Lebanon Range in the north and the Sinai Desert in the south. The main physical features of Palestine ran approximately north-south in more or less parallel lines. Bordering the Mediterranean Sea was a coastal plain rising into an area of low foothills called the Shephelah, which rose further into the broad central mountains. These mountains then fell away into a deep valley called the Arabah, through the northern section of which flowed the Jordan River. East of Jordan the land rose sharply, then opened on to an uneven tableland. (For Palestine’s vegetation, animal life, climate and agriculture see ANIMALS; BIRDS; FARMING; FLOWERS; FOOD; TREES; WEATHER.)
Coastal plain
Palestine’s coastal plain, from the Phoenician town of Tyre in the north to the Israelite town of Gaza in the south, was about 220 kilometres in length. In Phoenicia, where the Lebanon Range was close to the coast, the plain was very narrow (see LEBANON; PHOENICIA), but south from Lebanon it gradually widened till interrupted by the Mt Carmel Range. Extending inland from the Mt Carmel Range to Jezreel was the Plain of Esdraelon, through which flowed the Kishon River (Judg 5:21; Hosea 1:5). From Jezreel the plain led into the Valley of Jezreel, which extended east as far as the town of Bethshan near the Jordan River. Other towns of the region were Jokneam, Megiddo, Ibleam and Shunem (Josh 17:11; 1 Sam 28:4; 1 Kings 4:12).
(For details of towns mentioned in this article see entries under the names of the towns.) This whole area (i.e. the Plain of Esdraelon and the Valley of Jezreel) was sometimes referred to as the Valley of Jezreel and played an important part in Israel’s history. To the north of the valley was Mt Tabor, and to the south Mt Gilboa. Many of Israel’s battles were fought in this area, partly because the main north-south (Syria to Philistia) and east-west (Bethshan to Mt Carmel) roads passed through the valley. Megiddo, where the two roads crossed, also commanded the western entrance to the Plain of Esdraelon and consequently was of strategic importance to Israel (Judg 4:6; 5:19-21; 6:33; 1 Sam 29:1; 31:1,8,12; 2 Kings 9:16,27,30; 23:29; Zech 12:11). Along the coast immediately to the south of Mt Carmel was the small Plain of Dor (Josh 17:11; 1 Chron 7:29) and farther south the larger Plain of Sharon. Though much of Sharon was marshy, it had some pastoral and forestry lands. In Old Testament times it was fairly thinly populated (1 Chron 27:29; Song of Songs 2:1; Isa 35:2). Because of sandy shores and shallow waters, there were no good sites for harbours south of Mt Carmel. A low headland enabled a small harbour to be built at Joppa, and in Old Testament times this was Israel’s only Mediterranean port. Other towns in the area were Ono and Lod (or Lydda) (2 Chron 2:16; Ezra 3:7; Neh 11:35; Jonah 1:3; Acts 9:35-36,38; 10:5-8). In New Testament times the magnificent city of Caesarea, built by Herod the Great and equipped with an artificial harbour, became the administrative centre and chief port of the Roman province of Judea (Acts 18:22; 25:1-6). From Joppa south to Gaza was the Plain of the Philistines, whose five main towns were Ekron, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gaza and Gath. The plain and its lowland hills were good for farming, but became drier and less fertile towards the south. (For further details of this region see PHILISTIA.)
Shephelah
The low hill country between the narrow coastal plain and the high central range was called the Shephelah (Deut 1:7; Josh 9:1-2; 10:40; 12:8; Jer 17:26; Obad 19). It consisted of many hills and valleys, down which flowed swift mountain streams. This produced a fertile region that was suitable for growing sycamore trees and raising sheep and cattle (1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chron 27:28; 2 Chron 9:27; 26:10). Certain valleys in the Shephelah provided the only convenient routes from the coastal plain up to the central highlands, and consequently were the scene of many battles. The most important of these valleys was the Valley of Aijalon, where the main route from the coastal plain climbed up through Gezer and Beth-horon to the chief highland towns (Josh 10:11-12; 16:3; 1 Kings 9:16-17; see ‘Central mountains’ below). To the south of the Valley of Aijalon was the Valley of Elah leading up through Libnah (Josh 10:29- 31; 1 Sam 17:2; 2 Kings 19:8), and slightly farther south another valley leading up through Lachish (2 Kings 18:13-17). Of lesser importance were the valleys of Sorek and Zephathah (Judg 16:4; 2 Chron 14:10).
Central mountains
Rising from the coastal plain/Shephelah on the west and the Jordan Valley/Arabah on the east were the central mountains of Palestine. For convenience they may be considered a single mountain range broken into two unequal sections. The smaller northern section consisted mainly of the mountains of Galilee and was separated from the remaining section by the Plain of Esdraelon and its associated Valley of Jezreel. These hills and the adjacent plain and valley covered much of the tribal areas of Dan, Naphtali, Issachar, Zebulun and Asher (Josh 20:7; Isa 9:1). In the north of Galilee the mountains were higher than those in the south, more thickly forested and more thinly populated. In Old Testament times the chief city of the northern part was Hazor, originally a Canaanite stronghold but later one of Israel’s northern defence outposts (Judg 4:2; 1 Kings 9:15). Towards the south the mountains were more suited to farming. This south Galilean hill country was the region where Jesus grew up and where he spent most of the three and a half years of his public ministry. Some of the towns of the region were Nazareth, Cana and Nain (Matt 21:11; Luke 2:39; 4:16; 7:11; John 2:1-11; 4:46; 21:2). (For other towns in Galilee see
‘Upper Jordan and Sea of Galilee’
below.) Hills to the south of the Plain of Esdraelon marked the beginning of the long section of the range that stretched through central and southern Palestine. First were the hills of Samaria. These were not as high as those of north Galilee, the only prominent mountains being Mt Gerizim and Mt Ebal, which stood on opposite sides of the town of Shechem (Deut 27:12-13; Judg 9:7). Other important towns were Tirzah and Samaria. In the early days of the divided Israelite kingdom, Tirzah was the northern capital (1 Kings 14:17; 15:33; 16:6-8,15-19). Samaria was made the capital after Tirzah and remained so till the end of the northern kingdom. The city’s position on a hill overlooking the surrounding territory made it an excellent site for a capital (1 Kings 16:23-24; 20:1; 2 Kings 6:24; 17:5). North of Samaria was the small Plain of Dothan, which provided an alternative route from Jezreel to the coast (Gen 37:17,28; 2 Kings 6:13).
Further south was the hill country of Ephraim, Benjamin and part of neighbouring Judah. This was a fertile forest region broken by steep valleys. These valleys proved to be good defences against attackers, particularly in the days after Joshua’s conquest when the Israelites were struggling to keep hold of their newly won territory (Josh 17:17-18; Judg 5:14; 7:24; 12:15). To the west the Valley of Aijalon led down from the towns of Beth-horon and Gezer through the Shephelah to the Philistine coastal plain (Josh 10:9- 12; 16:3,5; 18:13-14). Since this valley provided a main route from the coastal plain to Israel’s highlands, it was a frequent battlefield and became well fortified with Israelite defence outposts (1 Sam 13:17-18; 1 Kings 9:16-17; 2 Chron 8:5; 11:10; 25:13; 28:18). On the other side of the highlands another valley provided the way down to the east. The route went from Bethel through Ai and Michmash to Jericho on the broad plain of the Jordan Valley (Josh 16:1-2; 18:11-13; 1 Sam 13:2-5,23; 14:1-5; Luke 10:30; 19:1). This part of the central highlands was one of the most thickly populated regions of Canaan. Some of its other well known towns were Shiloh, Mizpah, Ramah, Gibeon, Gibeah, Kiriath-jearim, Bethshemesh, Emmaus, Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Bethany (Josh 9:3,17; 18:25-28; 1 Sam 6:12; 7:15- 17; 14:1-3; 17:12; Matt 2:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 24:13). To the south of this collection of towns the hills gradually flattened, the rainfall decreased, the land became less fertile and the population was more thinly spread. The chief town in this region was Hebron (Gen 23:17-19; 2 Sam 2:11; 3:20; 15:10). It was situated about half way between Jerusalem and Beersheba and was on the main route from Jerusalem to Egypt (Num 13:21-22).
Another route led west from Hebron through Lachish down to Ashkelon and Gaza on the main coastal route to Egypt. Because of their strategic positions, Hebron and Lachish were heavily fortified (2 Chron 11:5-12). This barren region of southern Judah was the place to which David fled in escaping from Saul. Some of the places mentioned in the story are Adullam, Keilah, Ziph, En-gedi, Maon, Horesh and Ziklag (1 Sam 22:1; 23:13-15,25,29; 24:1-2; 25:1-2; 27:6-10; for map see DAVID). The central mountains had by now flattened into a broad tableland that stretched south into the Negeb.
Negeb
The Negeb is literally ‘the dry’, and was the name given to the dry southern part of Palestine between the Dead Sea and the Sinai Desert. Its approximate northern boundary ran from Gaza on the coast east to the Dead Sea. Its approximate southern boundary ran from Ezion-geber at the north-eastern tip of the Red Sea to the Brook of Egypt (Wadi El-Arish), which it followed to the coast. The chief towns of the Negeb were Beersheba in the north and Kadesh-barnea in the south. The Wilderness of Zin fell within the Negeb, and the Wildernesses of Shur and Paran bordered it to the west and south respectively (Gen 20:1; Exod 15:22; Num 10:12; 13:26; 20:1; 32:8; 33:35-37; 34:4). In Old Testament times much of the Negeb was occupied by the tribe of Judah. The northern part attracted more people than the southern, because it was more suitable for grazing and farming. The Philistines continued to occupy much of the coastal plain, and other tribal groups occupied various areas at different times (Gen 20:1; 26:1; Num 13:29; 1 Sam 27:10; 30:14). Water was always a problem in this dry region (Gen 16:7; 26:17-23; Josh 15:19). Two main roads linked Egypt and Palestine. The ‘Way of the land of the Philistines’ went along the coast (Exod 13:17), the ‘Way of the Wilderness of Shur’ went through the centre of the Negeb (Gen 16:7). This latter route passed through the towns of Kadesh-barnea, Beersheba, Hebron, Jerusalem, Shiloh and Shechem, and was a well used route even as early as the time of Abraham (Gen 20:1; 21:32; 37:14; 46:1). It may have been used by some of the twelve spies when they went north to spy out Canaan (Num 13:21-23), and was probably used by Joseph and Mary when they fled to Egypt to escape from Herod (Matt 2:13-15). This north-south road was crossed at Beersheba by a west-east road connecting Gaza on the coast with Edom inland. The section of the road that went east from Beersheba through the Valley of Salt and the Wilderness of Zin to Edom was known as the ‘Way of the Wilderness of Edom’ (2 Sam 8:13; 2 Kings 3:8; 14:7). Upper Jordan and Sea of Galilee The Jordan River rose in the region of Mt Hermon in the Lebanon Range. From there it flowed south through a region that was quiet and isolated, till the tribe of Dan conquered the people and seized the territory for itself.
In Old Testament times the town of Laish, which the Danites renamed Dan, became the northernmost town of Israel (Judg 18:27-29; 1 Sam 3:20; 1 Kings 12:29). In the New Testament record the town of Caesarea Philippi, which was in the same locality, was the northernmost point that Jesus visited (Matt 16:13). South of Dan the Jordan flowed through a small lake, then into a second and larger lake known in the Old Testament as the Sea of Chinnereth and in the New Testament as the Sea (or Lake) of Galilee, the Lake of Gennesaret, and the Sea of Tiberias (Num 34:11; Matt 15:29; Luke 5:1; John 6:1). The hills around the Sea of Galilee, particularly those to the north-west, provided Jesus with some quiet spots where he went to pray and teach his disciples (Matt 5:1; 14:23; 15:29; 28:16). The lake itself was 200 metres below sea level and contained plenty of fish (Matt 4:18; Luke 5:1-9; John 21:1-8). The area around the lake was well populated and was the scene of much of Jesus’ public ministry. On the northern shore of the lake were two towns, each with a large Jewish population, Capernaum and Bethsaida. Capernaum seems to have been Jesus’ base for his northern ministry (Matt 4:13; Mark 2:1; 6:45; 9:33; John 6:17). In the hills behind Capernaum was another town that Jesus visited, Chorazin (Matt 11:21-23). On the western shore of Lake Galilee were the largely Gentile towns of Magdala and Tiberias. Also bordering the lake to the west was the small Plain of Gennesaret (or Chinnereth) (Matt 15:39; Mark 6:53; John 6:23). To the east of the lake was the less populous district of Gadara, where the land rose steeply from the water’s edge and opened on to good farming country. The people of the district were mainly Gentiles, some of them pig farmers, and were known as Gadarenes (after the local district) or Gerasenes (after the larger district where Gadara was located) (Matt 8:28,30-32; Mark 5:1,11-13). Spreading out farther to the north and east was the rich pastoral land of Bashan. Two of its main towns were Golan and Edrei (Deut 32:14; Josh 12:1-5; 21:27; Jer 50:19; see BASHAN).
Jordan Valley and Dead
Sea From the Sea of Galilee the Jordan flowed south through a deep valley till it entered the Dead Sea, 400 metres below sea level. The valley immediately south of the Sea of Galilee was fertile and good for farming, but further south it began to become desolate, till it was little better than a desert where the Jordan entered the Dead Sea (Mark 1:4-5,9-13). For much of its length the river was difficult to cross, and so formed a good barrier against invasion from the east. There was thick jungle along the water’s edge on either side of the river, from where steep banks rose up to the floor of the main valley (Jer 12:5; 49:19; Zech 11:3). These banks collapsed at times and damned the stream, which was probably what happened at the time of Israel’s crossing under Joshua (Josh 3:14-17). Normally, people could cross the river only at certain places where there were natural fords (Josh 2:7; Judg 3:28; 7:24; 12:5; 2 Sam 19:15,18). Between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea a number of streams fed the Jordan from the east, the most important of them being the Yarmuk and the Jabbok. Another, of lesser importance, was the Cherith (Deut 3:16; 1 Kings 17:3). Two towns of the region, Succoth and Penuel, were strategically located close to the Jordan and Jabbok Rivers. A ford crossed the Jordan nearby, and defence fortifications were built at Penuel (Gen 32:22,31; 33:17; Judg 8:8,16-17; 1 Kings 12:25). The region east of Jordan, particularly the central part, was commonly known as Gilead. In the time of Moses, Israel had taken the land from the Amorites, but the earlier occupants were the Ammonites (in the central region) and the Moabites (in the southern region). Their respective capitals were Rabbah and Heshbon (Num 21:24-26; Deut 3:11; 4:46).
The Israelites’ chief defence outpost on the eastern frontier was at Ramoth-gilead (2 Kings 8:28; 9:14). (For maps and other details see AMMON; GILEAD; MOAB.) In the Jordan Valley and to the west of the river were the towns of Gilgal and Jericho (Josh 4:19). Because of a natural spring of freshwater at Jericho, the town had the appearance of an oasis and was called the city of palm trees (Deut 34:3). Another natural product of the Jordan Valley was a special kind of clay that was used in making articles of bronze (1 Kings 7:46). The Dead Sea was known also as the Salt Sea, because of the large amounts of salt and other chemicals in the water (Josh 15:5; 18:19). No fish could live in it and no vegetation grew around its shores, except at places where fresh water entered from streams on the eastern side. There were no streams on the western side, but cultivation was possible at isolated points where there were freshwater springs, such as at En-gedi (Song of Songs 1:14). It is believed that Sodom and Gomorrah were located near the southern end of the Dead Sea. Through earthquake activity the sea apparently spread further south, covering whatever may have remained of the ancient cities (Gen 19:24-28).
Arabah
From the eastern side of the central highlands, the land fell away sharply into a deep valley that ran from the Sea of Chinnereth (Sea of Galilee) along the Jordan River to the Dead Sea, from where it continued south to Ezion-geber on the Gulf of Aqabah (the north-eastern arm of the Red Sea). The section north of the Dead Sea was commonly known as the Jordan Valley, and the section south as the Arabah. Originally, arabah was a common Hebrew word meaning ‘burnt’ or ‘dried up’, and was used of dry or semi-desert wasteland. It was a fitting word to give as a name to the barren valley south of the Dead Sea (Deut 1:1; 2:8). The name Arabah was not restricted to this one region. On occasions the whole valley, both north and south of the Dead Sea, was called the Arabah. The Dead Sea was known as the Sea of the Arabah, and a small stream that entered the Jordan near its entrance to the Dead Sea was known as the Brook of the Arabah (Deut 3:17; 4:48-49; Josh 3:16; 11:2; 12:1-3; Amos 6:14). In the days of Israel’s expansion under Jeroboam II, the Sea of the Arabah marked Israel’s southern boundary (2 Kings 14:25). An important road called the King’s Highway ran from Ezion-geber along the plateau on the eastern side of the Arabah through Edom, Moab and Ammon into Syria. The Israelites under Moses wanted to use this road on their journey to Canaan, but Edom and Moab refused permission, forcing the Israelites to make a lengthy and tiring detour around the borders (Num 20:14-21; 21:10-13,21-26; Judg 11:15-24). The Arabah contained good quantities of iron and copper (Deut 8:9). Workers mined and smelted the minerals at various places along the valley, then transported them down the King’s Highway (the Arabah road; Deut 2:8) to a refinery at Ezion-geber, from where large ocean-going ships carried them east (cf. 1 Kings 9:26-28; 10:22).
Political divisions
For details of the history of Palestine and its political divisions in Old Testament times see AMORITES; CANAAN; ISRAEL; JUDAH, TRIBE AND KINGDOM; and articles under the names of the various Israelite tribes and towns. In New Testament times there were three commonly recognized regions in Palestine itself (northern, central and southern; see GALILEE; SAMARIA; JUDEA), and two in the former Israelite territory to the east of Jordan (northern and southern; see DECAPOLIS; PEREA).
PAMPHYLIA
The province of Pamphylia was in southern Asia Minor, bordering the Mediterranean Sea (Acts 27:5). Paul visited the province twice on his first missionary journey. The Bible does not mention his preaching there when he passed through it the first time (Acts 13:13-14), but on his return he preached in the main town of Perga. He then went to the nearby port of Attalia, from where he sailed back to his home church in Syria (Acts 14:24-26). (For map see ACTS, BOOK OF.)
PARABLES
From ancient times people have used pictures and stories from nature, history and everyday life to teach moral and spiritual truth. Broadly speaking, these pictures and stories are called parables. The Old Testament contains a number of stories that may be considered parables (Judg 9:8-15; 2 Sam 12:1-4; 2 Kings 14:9), but by far the majority of parables in the Bible were spoken by Jesus.
Purpose of Jesus’ parables
Jesus’ parables were more than mere illustrations. They were stories designed to make people think, and often the hearers had to work out the meaning for themselves. The crowds that followed Jesus were often a hindrance, as many of the people were more interested in seeing him perform miracles than in making a spiritual response to his ministry. Jesus’ parables helped separate those who were genuinely interested from those who were merely curious (Mark 4:1-2,11-12). This separation occurred as people exercised their minds to work out the meaning of the parables. Those who desired to know more of Jesus and his teaching found the parables full of meaning. As a result their ability to understand the teaching increased. Those who had no real interest in Jesus’ teaching saw no meaning in the parables at all and so turned away from him. As a result their spiritual darkness became darker, and their hardened hearts harder. Because their wills were opposed to Jesus, their minds could not appreciate his teaching. Their sins therefore remained unforgiven (Matt 13:10-17; Mark 4:10-12). Although the teaching of parables may have caused the idly curious to lose interest in Jesus, the basic purpose of a parable was to enlighten, not to darken. A parable was like a lamp, and a lamp was put on a stand to give people light, not hidden under a bowl or a bed to keep people in darkness. The more thought people gave to Jesus’ teaching, the more enlightenment and blessing they received in return. On the other hand the less thought they gave to it, the less chance they had of understanding any spiritual truth at all (Mark 4:21-25).
Parables of the kingdom
Because Jesus’ parables separated between the true and the false, many of them were concerned with the subject of the kingdom of God. God’s kingdom had, in a sense, come in the person of Jesus Christ. He announced the kingdom, and people’s response to his message determined whether they entered the kingdom (Matt 13:18-23; 21:28-33,42-43; 22:1-14; see KINGDOM OF GOD). This was seen clearly in the parable of the sower, where the different kinds of soil illustrated the different responses that people made to the teaching of Jesus. Only those who wholeheartedly accepted it were God’s people (Matt 13:1-9,18-23). This parable was the key to understanding the others (Mark 4:13). When the Jews, for whom the kingdom was prepared, rejected Jesus, Gentiles were invited and there was a great response (Matt 22:1-10). Thus Gentiles, who in Old Testament times had not received the preparation for God’s kingdom that the Jews had received, entered into its full blessings along with believing Jews (Matt 20:1-16). Jesus pointed out that in the present world there will always be a mixture of those who belong to God’s kingdom and those who do not. When the final judgment comes, however, only the genuine believers will share in the triumphs of the kingdom (Matt 13:24-30,34-43,47-50; 25:1-46). God’s kingdom, then, is assured of final victory. From its insignificant beginnings among the ordinary people of Palestine it spreads throughout the world (Matt 13:31-33). It is of such value that to enter it is worth any sacrifice (Matt 13:44-46). It is something that reaches its fulfilment through the work of God himself (Mark 4:26-29).
Further characteristics of the parables
Whether or not Jesus’ parables are directly related to the subject of the kingdom in the manner just outlined, Jesus usually intended them to teach only one or two points. In some cases he mentioned these points (Matt 21:43; Luke 12:21; 15:7,10), but in others he left the hearers to find out for themselves (Mark 12:12-13; Luke 7:40-43; 19:11-27). Likewise instead of giving a direct answer to a question or criticism, Jesus sometimes told a parable by which the hearer himself could work out the answer (Luke 10:29-30; 15:2-3). It is therefore important, in reading a parable, to find the chief purpose for which Jesus told it, and interpret the parable according to this purpose (Luke 18:1,9). There is no need to find meanings for all the details within the parable, as these are often nothing more than parts of the framework of the story. Indeed, it can be misleading to interpret some of these details, because in doing so we may miss, or distort, the meaning that Jesus intended. For example, in the parable of Matthew 20:1-15 Jesus was not teaching that an employer should give his workers equal pay for unequal work. Rather he was showing that even the most unlikely people enter God’s kingdom and, by God’s grace, they receive its full blessings (Matt 20:16). Similarly in the parable of Luke 16:1-17 he was not advising people to use cunning or dishonesty in their business dealings. Rather he was teaching that if believers use their material possessions wisely, they are guaranteed heavenly riches of permanent value (Luke 16:9-11). Whatever the main point of each of Jesus’ parables may have been, Jesus was inevitably forcing his hearers to a decision. He wanted people to listen and think (Matt 18:12; 21:28; Luke 10:36), but more than that he wanted them to decide and act (Matt 18:35; 21:45; Luke 10:37). And the challenge that Jesus brought through his parables is still relevant today (Matt 13:9,43).
PARADISE
Originally the word translated ‘paradise’ in English versions of the Bible meant ‘a garden’. The word was used of the Garden of Eden (Gen 2:8-10; Ezek 28:13). This association with a place of beauty and perfection was probably the reason why the word in later times was used of heaven (Luke 23:43; 2 Cor 12:3; Rev 2:7; cf. Rev 22:1-5; see HEAVEN).
PARAN
Paran was a barren region in the Sinai Peninsular. It was located south of Kadesh-barnea and west of Ezion-geber. (For map and other details see KADESH-BARNEA.) Refugees at times escaped to Paran, and the people of Israel camped there on their way from Egypt to Canaan (Gen 21:21; Num 10:12; 13:25-26; 1 Kings 11:17-18).
PARENTS
Probably the most basic of all human relationships is that between a man and a woman. Only through it can human life be perpetuated (Gen 1:27-28). Yet this relationship involves more than sexual relations for the sake of producing children. Sex is only one part of a total relationship in which a man and a woman marry and commit themselves to each other for life (Matt 19:5-6). It is within this total marriage relationship, not outside it, that God intends children to be born and grow up. God’s design is for children to be brought up in families where both parents live together and accept their responsibilities. Those responsibilities include providing for their children’s physical and social needs, and teaching them the true values of life (Ps 128:1-3; Prov 1:8; 31:21,27; Col 3:20-21; cf. 1 Kings 1:5-6). In the case of Christian parents, the training of their children will aim to bring them to know God and walk in his ways (Deut 6:5-9; Eph 6:1-4; 2 Tim 1:5; 3:15). Christians will learn how to deal properly with their children as they understand more about the way their heavenly Father deals with them (Heb 12:5-11; James 1:16-17; see FATHER). (For fuller details of parental responsibilities see FAMILY.)
PASSOVER
The Feast of Passover was God’s appointed way for the people of Israel to celebrate their miraculous escape from Egypt (Exod 12:14,24). The name of the feast recalled God’s act of ‘passing over’ the houses of the Israelites while killing the firstborn of the Egyptians (Exod 12:27). However, God withheld judgment from the Israelite households only when he saw the blood of the sacrificial animal around the front door. The blood was a sign that an innocent life had been taken in place of the one under judgment (Exod 12:5,7,12-13,21-23; cf. Lev 17:11; see BLOOD).
Regulations and practices
The month of the Passover became the first month of the Jewish religious year (Exod 12:2). (This was the season of spring in Israel and corresponds with March-April on our calendar.) Late in the afternoon of the fourteenth day, each household killed a lamb, which the people ate in a sacrificial meal that night. This was now the beginning of the fifteenth day according to Israelite reckoning, for they considered sunset to mark the end of one day and the beginning of the next (Exod 12:6,8). Each Passover meal was a re-enactment of the first Passover meal, when people prepared and ate it in haste, dressed ready for their departure in the morning (Exod 12:11,25-27). They did not cut up the animal and boil it, but roasted it whole over an open fire. They made their bread without yeast (leaven), to save time waiting for the dough to rise.
The entire meal was deliberately kept simple, to keep the people from any feeling of self-glory. They were to burn the leftovers, and so prevent any defilement of the solemn occasion through the meat’s spoiling or the people’s keeping portions as sacred charms (Exod 12:8-10). Following the Passover, and joined to it, was the seven-day Feast of Unleavened Bread. The two were considered one festival (Deut 16:1-8; Mark 14:1). Having removed leaven from their houses before preparing the Passover, the people kept their houses free of leaven for the week after the Passover (Exod 12:14-20). This reminded them that, having been saved through the Passover, they had fled from Egypt hastily, cooking unleavened bread as they travelled (Exod 12:33-34,39). (Concerning the offerings made at the Feast of Unleavened Bread see FEASTS.) Once the Israelites arrived in Canaan, they were to celebrate the Passover only at the central place of worship. At first this was the tabernacle, and later the temple (Deut 16:5-6; Josh 5:10-11; 2 Chron 8:12- 13; 30:1; 35:1; Luke 2:41; John 2:13; 11:55). All adult male Israelites had to attend the Passover celebration (Exod 23:14,17), and so could foreigners, provided they had accepted circumcision and so become part of the covenant people (Exod 12:43-49). There were special provisions for those Israelites who were unable to attend because of unavoidable circumstances (Num 9:6-13; cf. 2 Chron 30:17-20). The reforms that became necessary at various times in Israel’s later history show that people had frequently neglected or misused the Passover (2 Chron 30:5; 35:16-18).
Jesus’ last Passover
By the time of Jesus, the Passover had developed into a set form with a number of added rituals. Although people killed the lamb at the temple, they ate the meal privately with friends and relatives (Luke 22:8-13). Among the additions to the meal was a cup of wine, for which the head of the household offered a prayer of thanks (or blessing; 1 Cor 10:16), and which he passed around among the participants, both before and after the eating of unleavened bread (Mark 14:22-24; Luke 22:15-20). Singing also became part of the celebration, the participants singing a collection of psalms known as the Hallel (Psalms 113-118). They usually sang the first two psalms before eating the lamb, the other psalms after (Mark 14:26). It appears that on the occasion of Jesus’ last Passover, he and his disciples ate the meal a day earlier than the official time, and probably without a lamb (Luke 22:15; John 13:1). If this was so, the reason was probably that Jesus knew that he himself was now the Passover lamb. On the next day he would lay down his life at the same time as the animals were being killed in preparation for the meal that was to follow that night (John 18:28; 19:14,31,42). Jesus’ death on the cross was the great act of redemption of which the Israelite Passover was but a picture (cf. Exod 12:5 with 1 Peter 1:18-19; cf. Exod 12:46 with John 19:36; cf. Exod 12:21,27 with 1 Cor 5:7). Once Jesus had died, the Passover was of no further use. It was replaced by a new remembrance ceremony, the Lord’s Supper (Matt 26:17-30; 1 Cor 10:16; 11:23-26; see LORD’S SUPPER). Nevertheless, the New Testament refers to the requirements of the Passover to provide a lesson for Christians. Just as the Passover festival meant that Israelites removed leaven from their houses, so the sacrifice of Jesus Christ means that Christians should remove sin from their lives (1 Cor 5:7-8; see LEAVEN).
PASTOR
Ephesians 4:8-11 states that pastors and teachers were among the risen Christ’s gifts to the church. The grammatical link between the two words in the original language indicates that they refer to the same people, pastor-teachers. Another point that is clearer in the original language than in English is the connection between the words ‘pastor’, ‘shepherd’ and ‘flock’. All come from the same Greek root. A pastor, or shepherd, is one who leads and cares for God’s flock, the church (John 21:15-17; Acts 20:28-29; 1 Peter 5:1-4). In referring to leaders of God’s people as shepherds, the New Testament writers were following a well established Old Testament usage of the word (Num 27:17; Isa 63:11; Jer 50:6; see SHEPHERD). But whereas the shepherd-leaders of Israel were often concerned only for themselves (Ezek 34:2-6), the Christian’s example of a shepherd-leader, Jesus Christ, gave himself for the flock (Matt 9:36; 10:6; John 10:1-15; 1 Peter 5:1-4).
One reason why pastors must also be teachers is that their means of feeding the flock is the teaching of the Word (Acts 20:28; see TEACHER). Some may move from place to place, spending periods of varying lengths in different churches (Acts 11:25-26; 20:31). Others may be settled residents of particular localities, and most likely be elders in their local churches (Acts 20:28-32; Col 4:12-13). Elders must have pastoring abilities (1 Peter 5:1-4) and teaching abilities (1 Tim 3:2). Their leadership and care of the church involves feeding it on teaching that is wholesome and protecting it from teaching that is harmful (Acts 20:29; 1 Tim 1:3-7; 6:3-21; Titus 1:9; see ELDER). It is not the duty of the pastor-teachers to carry out all the service of God in the church. They must not encourage the Christians to be totally dependent on them. On the contrary they should use their Godgiven gifts in such a way that all the Christians are better equipped to carry out God’s service and better able to understand Christian teaching. In this way individual Christians will grow to spiritual maturity and the church as a whole will be built up (Eph 4:11-16; cf. Ezek 34:2-6).
PATIENCE
Among the many qualities that the Spirit of God develops in the life of believers is that of patience (Gal 5:22). Some older English versions called it longsuffering, and at times forbearance. Patience is that quality of character that develops within believers as they learn to put up with people and things that test, try or annoy them (Rom 5:3-4; Eph 4:1-2; James 1:3-4). The specific feature of Christian patience is that believers exercise it in a spirit of love, joy, humility and forgiveness (1 Cor 13:4,7; Col 1:11; 3:12-13; cf. Matt 18:23-35). Patience is a characteristic of God himself. He is patient with sinners, withholding his judgment and providing instead a way of salvation (Ps 103:8-9; Jonah 4:2; Rom 3:25-26; 1 Peter 3:20).
Those who respond to his patience in faith and repentance receive his forgiveness; those who despise or ignore it fall under his punishment (Exod 34:6-7; Rom 2:3-4; 9:22; 1 Tim 1:16; 2 Peter 3:9). Jesus was the perfect example of forbearance and longsuffering (Matt 26:50-53; Luke 9:51-56; 1 Tim 1:16; 1 Peter 2:21-23). His example assures Christians that patience is more than tolerance; it is endurance and steadfastness (2 Thess 3:5; Heb 12:3). God’s people must be prepared to endure insults, hardship, injustice, persecution, suffering and trials of every kind (1 Cor 4:12; 6:7; 2 Cor 1:6; 2 Thess 1:3-4; Heb 11:25-27; James 1:12; 5:10-11). This sort of patience is especially necessary for those who serve God in the work of evangelism and church care (1 Thess 5:14; 2 Tim 2:10,24; 3:10-11; 4:2). Patience also means perseverance, whether in particular matters such as prayer (Rom 12:12; Col 4:2) or in the overall matter of steadfast commitment to the end (Matt 24:13; Col 2:23; Heb 10:36). What Christians look for is the return of Christ. Although, in the meantime, they must bear patiently with the trials of life, their expectancy of Christ’s return gives purpose to their perseverance. It is their Christian hope (Heb 6:11-12; James 5:7-8; see HOPE; PERSEVERANCE).
PAUL
Through his evangelistic activity, church leadership, theological insights and extensive writings, Paul had an immeasurable influence on the development of Christianity. He spread the gospel and planted churches regardless of national or racial barriers, and in so doing he changed the traditional views of Godfearing people. He interpreted Christ’s life and developed Christ’s teachings in a way that provided a firm theological framework for Christian faith and practice.
Background and conversion
Paul’s original name was Saul. He was a full-blooded Jew, born in Tarsus in south-east Asia Minor (Acts 9:11; 22:3; Phil 3:5). He inherited from birth the privilege of Roman citizenship (Acts 16:37; 22:26- 28; see ROME), and he grew up to speak, read and write Greek and Hebrew fluently (Acts 21:37,40). The Greek influence in his education gave him the ability to think clearly and systematically, and the Hebrew influence helped to create in him a character of moral uprightness (Phil 3:6). As a religiously zealous young man, Paul moved to Jerusalem, where he received instruction in the Jewish law according to the strict traditions of the Pharisees. His teacher was the prominent rabbi, Gamaliel (Acts 22:3; 23:6; 26:5). Like all Jewish young men he learnt a trade, in his case, tent-making (Acts 18:3). Zeal for the Jewish law stirred up Paul against the Christians. He considered that Stephen was a rebel against the law and that therefore he deserved execution (Acts 6:13; 7:58; 8:1; Phil 3:6). With the support of the Jewish Council (the Sanhedrin), Paul then led the persecution against the Christians, imprisoning men and women alike (Acts 8:3; 9:1-2; 26:10-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Tim 1:13).
Paul considered the Christians to be guilty of blasphemy in believing in a Messiah who died on a cross; for a person who died on a cross was under God’s curse (Acts 26:11; Gal 3:13). But while on the way to Damascus to capture Christians, Paul had a dramatic experience that changed him completely. Jesus’ personal revelation to Paul convinced him that Jesus was alive (Acts 9:3-5; 22:14; 26:8,15; 1 Cor 9:1). This meant that Jesus was no longer under God’s curse. He had died, not because he was a lawbreaker, but because he willingly bore the curse on behalf of those who were. Jesus’ resurrection was now the unmistakable evidence of God’s approval of him (Rom 1:4; Gal 3:13; 6:14). Linked with Paul’s conversion was the Lord’s revelation that he intended to use Paul as his messenger to the Gentiles (Acts 9:15; 26:15-18; Gal 1:11-16). From that time on, Paul never ceased to wonder at the work of God in saving the opponent of Christianity and turning him into an ambassador for Christianity. It gave Paul an appreciation of the grace of God that affected every aspect of his life (1 Cor 15:8-10; Eph 3:8; 1 Tim 1:12-17). (The date of Paul’s conversion was about AD 32.)
Preparation for future ministry
After his conversion, Paul remained for a while in Damascus, trying to convince the Jews that Jesus was Lord and Messiah. Part of the next three years Paul spent in Arabia, after which he returned to Damascus. When violent opposition from the Jews threatened his life, he escaped to Jerusalem (Acts 9:22-26; Gal 1:17-18). Most of the Christians in Jerusalem doubted whether Paul’s conversion was genuine. Not so Barnabas. After he introduced Paul to Peter and James the Lord’s brother, the tension eased (Acts 9:26-28; Gal 1:19-20). But attempts by the Jews on his life again forced him to flee.
He sailed from Caesarea to northern Syria, from where he went overland through Cilicia to Tarsus (Acts 9:29-30; 22:17-21; Gal 1:21). Paul’s next visit to Jerusalem was eleven years later (cf. Gal 1:18; 2:1). Little is known of those eleven years, though they must have been important years of preparation for Paul’s future work. Paul spent the final year of this preparation period at Antioch in Syria. In response to an invitation from Barnabas, he had come from Tarsus to help the newly formed Antioch church (Acts 11:25-26). At the end of the year, Paul and Barnabas took a gift of money from Antioch to Jerusalem to help the poor Christians there (Acts 11:29-30; Gal 2:1). Peter, John and James the Lord’s brother, as representatives of the Jerusalem church, received the gift from the Antioch church and expressed their complete fellowship with the mission of Paul and Barnabas to the Gentiles (Gal 2:9-10). Paul and Barnabas then returned to Antioch, taking with them the young man John Mark (Acts 12:25).
Breaking into new territory
Having a desire to spread the gospel into the unevangelized areas to the west, the Antioch church sent off Paul and Barnabas as its missionaries (Acts 13:1-2; about AD 46). Accompanied by John Mark (who had gone with them as their assistant), Paul and Barnabas went first to Cyprus, where they proclaimed the message from one end of the island to the other (Acts 13:4-6). From there the group went to Perga in Asia Minor. At this point John Mark left the other two and returned to Jerusalem (Acts 13:13). Paul and Barnabas then moved inland, planting churches in the Galatian towns of Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe (Acts 13:14; 14:1,8,20).
To strengthen the new churches, they returned to Perga by the same route as they had come, and then sailed back to their home church in Syria (Acts 14:21-28). This trip, commonly referred to as Paul’s first missionary journey, showed how Paul thought carefully about his missionary work. He established some basic patterns, which he followed on later trips as his field of missionary activity expanded. For example, Paul set himself certain guidelines concerning how and where he preached. He felt an obligation to preach to the Jews first, since their entire national history had prepared them to receive the Christian gospel (Acts 13:14,46; Rom 1:16). On entering a town, Paul usually preached first in the synagogue, where God-fearing Gentiles, as well as Jews, provided him with a well prepared audience (Acts 13:14,43-44,48; 14:1; 17:1-4,10). His preaching in the synagogue was usually based on the Old Testament (Acts 13:15-41). His preaching in other places, where people knew nothing of the Old Testament, was usually based on the more general revelation of God in the natural creation and the human conscience (Acts 14:12-18; 17:17-31; Rom 1:19- 20; 2:14-16).
Paul’s aim was not merely to preach the gospel or make converts, but to bring people into a relationship with Jesus Christ that would change their lives. The life of Christ was to be reproduced in the lives of Christ’s people (2 Cor 5:17; Eph 4:17-24; Col 2:6-7; 3:1-4). However, Paul did not leave these people to live in isolation. In each locality he built them into a church, or body, where the lives of all would be enriched as they contributed to, and shared in, the life of the body (1 Cor 12:12-14; see CHURCH). From the Christians within each church, Paul appointed suitable people as elders, in order to give leadership to the church (Acts 14:23; 20:28; see ELDER). As independent units, each of them answerable to Christ as head (Eph 1:22-23; 4:15-16), churches then had the responsibility to evangelize the areas round about. For this reason Paul usually chose important towns along the main highways and trade routes as centres in which to plant churches. Once strong churches were established in these centres, the gospel would spread quickly to the surrounding regions (Acts 13:49; 16:11-12; 19:10; Rom 15:19-20; 1 Thess 1:8).
Trouble from Judaisers
There had always been some Jews in the Jerusalem church who believed that Christians had to follow the regulations of the Jewish law. Some of these people, known as Judaisers, came to Antioch in Syria and taught so persuasively that even Peter and Barnabas were influenced by them (Acts 15:1; Gal 2:11- 14). Paul quickly dealt with the problem in Antioch, but soon he heard news that the Judaisers had spread their teaching to the new churches of Galatia. Without delay he wrote and sent off the letter that we know as Galatians (Gal 1:6-8; 3:1-3; see GALATIANS, LETTER TO THE). For the rest of his life Paul opposed unceasingly any attempt to place Christians under the law of Moses.
A prominent theme of his teaching was that Christ’s death and resurrection has freed Christians from all forms of bondage, and given them a power to produce a quality of character that no law-code could ever produce (Rom 6:15-18; 7:4; 8:1-4; Gal 5:1,14; Col 2:13-14; 1 Tim 4:1-4). He was uncompromising in insisting that, through the grace of God, people are justified and sanctified by faith, regardless of lawkeeping (Rom 3:28; 6:19). Paul’s careful exposition of the meaning of Christ’s death and resurrection (namely, that it is the basis of the salvation God has provided) was one of his most influential contributions to the development of Christian doctrine (Rom 3:24-25; 5:1-2,6-11; 6:3-11; 1 Cor 1:21-24; 2 Cor 5:19-21; Gal 2:20-21; Eph 1:7; Phil 3:8-9; Col 1:20; 1 Tim 2:5-6; see JUSTIFICATION; SANCTIFICATION). With these truths clear in mind Paul went to Jerusalem, along with others from Antioch, to deal with the problem that the Judaisers had created (Acts 15:1-5). The Jerusalem leaders supported Paul and expressed their disapproval of the Judaisers (Acts 15:11,19,24). They also sent a letter to the troubled churches to reassure them in what they had believed (Acts 15:23-33; 16:4).
Into Europe
In view of the recent troubles, Paul decided to revisit the churches of Galatia. When he and Barnabas split because of a quarrel concerning whether to take Mark with them, Paul chose Silas as his partner. Soon he added Timothy as a young assistant (Acts 15:36-41; 16:1-3; about AD 49). This marked the beginning of what is commonly referred to as Paul’s second missionary journey. Although Paul planned his movements, he was also responsive when God redirected him. As a result he moved from the churches of Galatia up to Troas, from where he sailed to Macedonia in northern Greece (Acts 16:6-11). He established churches in Philippi (Acts 16:12-40), Thessalonica (Acts 17:1-9) and Berea (Acts 17:10-14), after which he moved to the southern part of Greece known as Achaia.
He preached with only moderate success in Athens (Acts 17:15-34), and then moved across to Corinth, where he stayed eighteen months (Acts 18:1-11). During this time in Corinth, Paul wrote the two letters that we know as 1 and 2 Thessalonians (cf. Acts 18:5; 1 Thess 3:1-6; 5:1; 2 Thess 1:1; 2:14; see THESSALONIANS, LETTERS TO THE). Some of the matters Paul dealt with in these letters concerned the return of Jesus Christ. Throughout his writings Paul showed Christ’s return to be the great hope, the assured expectation, the joyous climax towards which Christians move (Rom 8:18,23-24; 1 Cor 15:20,51-57; Phil 3:20-21; 1 Thess 1:10; 3:12-13; 4:13-18; see HOPE). It is also a sober reminder to Christians that, in view of their future meeting with Christ, they should be careful how they live now (1 Cor 4:5; 2 Cor 5:10; 1 Thess 5:1-11; see SECOND COMING). From Corinth Paul sailed for Ephesus. After a short stay there, he sailed for Palestine, where he visited the church in Jerusalem before returning to Antioch in Syria (Acts 18:18-22).
Developing churches
After a time with the church in Antioch, Paul set out on what is known as his third missionary journey (about AD 53). Once more he visited the churches of Galatia, after which he moved to Ephesus on the west coast of Asia Minor (Acts 18:23; 19:1). He stayed there three years (Acts 20:31), during which time his disciples evangelized much of Asia Minor (Acts 19:9-10). His work in Ephesus brought extraordinary results among a wide variety of people (Acts 19:9,18-20,24-26). The entire record of Paul in Acts is only an outline of his travels and experiences. He suffered many beatings, imprisonments and other hardships not mentioned in Acts (2 Cor 11:23-28), and met particularly violent opposition in Ephesus (1 Cor 15:32). During his three years in Ephesus he also had to deal with many problems that had arisen in the Corinthian church. He wrote the church a number of letters, and on one occasion made an urgent trip to Corinth to deal with the more serious matters.
(For details of these travels and writings, not mentioned in Acts, see CORINTHIANS, LETTERS TO THE.) Although Paul based his missionary plan on the establishment of churches in the key cities of a region, the plan would work only if those churches were strong and healthy. For this reason Paul gave repeated instruction to congregations and leaders on the quality of life required within the church. He emphasized the transforming work of the Holy Spirit in people’s lives (2 Cor 3:17-18; Gal 5:18-24; Eph 5:15-20), the loving consideration that Christians should have for each other (Rom 14:13,19; 1 Cor 10:24; Gal 6:1-2; Phil 2:4), the importance of right teaching in the church (2 Cor 4:1-2; 1 Tim 1:3-5; 3:15; 2 Tim 2:15,24), and the need for the public life of the church to be orderly, God-honouring, and spiritually helpful to all (1 Cor 11:17-22; 14:12,26,40; 1 Tim 5:16-17; Titus 1:5; see CHURCH; GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT; HOLY SPIRIT). Ephesus and Corinth were the two churches that gave Paul the most concern on these matters. They were also the two places where he stayed longest. After his three years in Ephesus he moved north to Macedonia (Acts 20:1), from where he travelled further through the region, possibly as far as Illyricum (Acts 20:2; Rom 15:19). He then travelled south to Corinth, where he spent a further three months (Acts 20:3).
For some time Paul had been collecting money from Gentile churches to help the poor Christians in the Jerusalem church. He hoped that when he and representatives from the Gentile churches took this money to Jerusalem, it would help towards healing the ill-feeling that many Jerusalemites had towards their Gentile brothers (Rom 15:25-27; 1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:1-9:15). Upon completing this mission in Jerusalem, Paul hoped to visit Rome (Acts 19:21; Rom 15:28-29). In preparation for this visit to Rome, Paul wrote (from Corinth) a lengthy letter to the Roman church, setting out in systematic fashion the basics of the Christian faith. If Rome, the centre of the Empire, was to be a centre from which the gospel could spread, the church there had to have a clear understanding of the gospel (Rom 1:10-13; 15:14-16; see ROMANS, LETTER TO THE). Just as Paul had wanted to make sure that the church in Corinth was strong before he moved west to Rome (2 Cor 10:15-16), so he wanted to be sure that the church in Rome was strong before he moved farther west to Spain (Rom 15:23-24). With these plans in mind, Paul and his party moved from Corinth back to Macedonia, across to Troas and down to Miletus (Acts 20:4-6,15). There he met the leaders of the Ephesian church, warning them of troubles that lay ahead for their church (Acts 20:17,28-30). After visiting Christians in a number of other ports, Paul reached Jerusalem (Acts 21:15; about AD 57).
Final break with Jerusalem
The Jerusalem Jews, some Christians among them, had always been suspicious of Paul, mainly because of his refusal to acknowledge the Jewish law as either a way of salvation or a rule of life. Yet Paul was always prepared to adjust to Jewish practices voluntarily, if he thought such action would gain him acceptance with the Jews and give him the opportunity to win them to Christ (1 Cor 9:19-23). He tried such an approach when he arrived in Jerusalem, but the Jews misunderstood. A riot resulted and Paul ended up in prison (Acts 21:17-40; 22:1-30). The Roman commander then sent Paul to stand trial before the Jewish Council, but that also finished in a riot (Acts 23:1-10). He therefore sent Paul to the provincial governor, Felix, in Caesarea (Acts 22:31-33). Paul’s accusers were unable to convince Felix that Paul was guilty, but Felix left Paul in prison to prevent any further trouble with the Jews (Acts 24:22-27). When, after two years, Festus replaced Felix as governor, he continued the injustice. As a result Paul claimed his right as a Roman citizen and appealed to the Emperor for justice (Acts 25:10-12).
Before Paul left for Rome, a visiting expert on Jewish affairs, Herod Agrippa II, confirmed that Paul was innocent (Acts 26:32). Through one crisis after another, Paul had shown himself to be a person of great physical courage and mental alertness. Earlier, when saved at the last moment from being beaten to death by the rioting Jews in Jerusalem, he had insisted on speaking to those who wanted to murder him, and he even brought them to silence (Acts 21:35-40). More than once he surprised the Roman military commander by his quick thinking (Acts 21:37-40; 22:25-29). Before the Jewish Council his speedy assessment of the situation enabled him to change proceedings to suit himself (Acts 23:6). With calm reasoning he convinced Felix of his innocence (Acts 24:10-23), and his alertness before Festus enabled him to seize the opportunity to get to Rome at last (Acts 25:9-12). He was now sent off to Rome by sea, under a Roman guard (Acts 27:1-2). Although a prisoner, Paul did not hesitate to give advice to the ship’s officers, warning them against sailing further in dangerous weather. They ignored his advice and the ship was soon in trouble (Acts 27:10-11,14,20). When, after two weeks of terror, the ship was about to sink, Paul’s leadership prevented panic and ensured that all on board got to land safely (Acts 27:29-38,42-44). The place they landed was the island Malta (Acts 28:1). Some months later they arrived in Rome, where Paul was kept under guard while awaiting the hearing of his case (Acts 28:11,16; about AD 60). He was allowed visitors and could speak openly in making known the Christian gospel (Acts 28:17,30-31).
Two years in Rome
Among those who came to Rome to see Paul was a Christian from Colossae named Epaphras (Col 1:7-8; 4:12). There had been false teaching in the Colossian church, and Epaphras sought advice from Paul concerning how to deal with it (Col 2:16-23). Although Paul had not personally founded the church in Colossae (Col 2:1), he gladly sent off a letter to help the church through its difficulties (see COLOSSIANS, LETTER TO THE). Another arrival from Colossae was a runaway slave named Onesimus, whose master Philemon owned the house in which the Colossian church met (Philem 1-2). Onesimus had heard the gospel from Paul, become a Christian, and now thought he should return to his master. Paul therefore wrote to Philemon, urging him to welcome Onesimus back (Philem 10-13,16; cf. Col 4:9; see PHILEMON). Since Paul’s friend Tychicus was to take these letters to Colossae (Col 4:7-9), Paul decided to send additional letters with Tychicus to other churches in the area, such as those at Ephesus and Laodicea (Eph 6:21-22; Col 4:16).
False teaching similar to that in Colossae had created difficulties in churches of neighbouring towns. (For details see EPHESIANS, LETTER TO THE.) Paul possibly wrote his letter to the church in Philippi during this imprisonment in Rome (though he may have written the letter elsewhere, during a previous imprisonment). Paul still had freedom to welcome visitors and speak openly of the kingdom of God (Phil 1:12-13; 2:19,25). He had just received a gift that the Philippian church had sent to him with Epaphroditus, and he wrote to thank them for it (Phil 4:18; see PHILIPPIANS, LETTER TO THE). In these letters from prison, Paul gave some of his richest teaching concerning the person of Jesus Christ. False ideas about Christ had forced Paul to set out clearly some of the important truths that people were forgetting or distorting (Eph 1:17-23; 3:4,14-19; Phil 2:5-11; 3:8-10; Col 1:15-20; 2:8; 3:1-4; see JESUS CHRIST). False ideas had also grown up concerning Christian behaviour and the nature of the church. Paul therefore wrote of the eternal purposes that God was bringing to fulfilment through the church collectively (Eph 1:11-14; 2:11-22; 3:3-12; 4:1-16; 5:27; Phil 2:12-16; Col 1:24-28) and through the lives of his people individually (Eph 1:3-10; 5:1-2,21; 6:10-18; Phil 1:9-11; 2:5,12-13; 3:12-16; 4:8-9; Col 1:9- 14; 3:12-17).
The final triumph
Throughout his imprisonment Paul had remained hopeful that he would be released and so be able to visit various churches again (Phil 1:25,27; 2:24; Philem 22). It seems certain that he was released and that with Timothy, Titus and others he visited a number of places. One of those places was Crete, where Titus remained for a while to help correct difficulties in the churches (Titus 1:5). Paul also visited Ephesus, where he left Timothy, again to help strengthen the churches after a period of instability (1 Tim 1:3,19- 20; 3:12-16; 5:20-22; cf. Acts 20:29-30). Paul then moved north to Macedonia (1 Tim 1:3; cf. Phil 2:24). It was possibly about this time that he received news of affairs in Crete and Ephesus that prompted him to write letters to his two fellow workers (see TITUS, LETTER TO; TIMOTHY, LETTERS TO).
Among other places he visited were Corinth, Miletus and Troas (2 Tim 4:13,20). About this time Paul must have been arrested again, for the next mention of him is as a prisoner in Rome once more. This time he expected not release, but execution (2 Tim 2:9; 4:6-8). From prison Paul wrote his last letter, known to us as Second Timothy (see TIMOTHY, LETTERS TO). It seems that Timothy was still in Ephesus and that Mark was in nearby Colossae (cf. Col 4:10). These two men, who had started out with Paul many years earlier as his young assistants, were the two he most wanted with him in his final days (2 Tim 4:9,11). With Christianity facing increasing dangers, many of the Christians had deserted Paul, leaving only Luke to support him in his imprisonment (2 Tim 1:15; 4:10-11,16). Paul wanted Timothy and Mark to come as quickly as possible and to bring with them Paul’s books, parchments and warm clothing; for winter was approaching (2 Tim 4:13,21). It is not known whether they reached Rome in time. According to tradition Paul was executed in Rome about AD 65.
PEACE
In the original languages of the Bible, the word ‘peace’ had a meaning far wider and richer than that which people commonly associate with the word today. In the Old Testament, peace (Heb. shalom) included a range of ideas, such as completeness, wholeness and well-being. The New Testament, though using the Greek word for ‘peace’, retained the breadth of ideas found in the Old Testament and so gave the word a richer meaning.
Wide-ranging blessings
According to the Hebrews’ understanding, peace was a state of well-being that included good health, prosperity, contentment, security and harmonious relationships (Ps 29:11; 37:37; 85:8-9; Isa 26:1-4; 32:17-18; 60:17; Lam 3:17; Zech 6:13; 8:12; Luke 11:21; 1 Cor 14:33; Eph 4:3). A prayer for God’s peace upon a person, nation or church was a prayer for the wide-ranging blessing of God (Num 6:26; Ps 122:6; Luke 2:14; Rom 15:33). The greeting of ‘Peace!’ with which people greeted each other was both an enquiry after and a wish for a person’s well-being (Judg 6:23; 18:6; 19:20; 1 Sam 25:6,35; Matt 10:13; John 20:21; 1 Cor 1:3; Eph 1:2; 6:23; 1 Peter 1:2; 5:14). Since peace was often linked with the blessing of God, it became linked also with God’s salvation (Isa 26:11-13; Luke 1:79; 19:42; Acts 10:36; Rom 5:1; 16:20). When God’s prophets warned the Old Testament Israelites of certain judgment if they continued in their sin, false prophets comforted the rebellious people with false assurances of salvation (Jer 8:10-11,15; 14:19; Ezek 13:10). But there could be no salvation, no peace, for the wicked (Isa 48:22). After the years of exile in Babylon, however, the good news of peace would prepare a repentant people for salvation from captivity and return to their homeland (Isa 52:7-10; cf. Eph 6:15).
Peace with God through Jesus Christ
No matter what expressions of salvation people of Old Testament times experienced, the fulness of salvation awaited the coming of Jesus Christ, the Prince of Peace (Isa 9:6; Luke 1:79). The peace he brought is an everlasting peace (Luke 2:14; John 14:27 16:33; 20:21-22). It is available to all people now and will reach its fullest expression in a restored universe at the end of the age (Isa 9:7; 65:17-25; Rev 21:1-5,22-24). This complete restoration to peace, fulness, wholeness and well-being is possible only because Jesus, by his death, dealt with the cause of the world’s trouble, sin. He bore God’s judgment on sin, so that the divine hostility against sin might be removed and repentant sinners might have peace with God (Isa 53:5- 6; Rom 5:1-2; Col 1:20-22; see PROPITIATION). When people, through God’s grace, have peace with God, they also have peace with one another. They become members of the kingdom of God, where all disharmony and injustice are removed, whether in matters of race, age, sex or status (Rom 14:17,19; Eph 2:14-17; 4:3; see RECONCILIATION). Christians preach this gospel of peace to others (Matt 10:13; John 20:21; Acts 10:36; Eph 6:15), though they realize that at times it may cause division; for while some will gladly accept it, others will violently oppose it (Matt 10:34-36). In spite of this, Christians must do all they can to help people in general to live together peacefully (Matt 5:9; Rom 12:18; Heb 12:14). Not only do Christians have peace with God through Christ, they also have the peace of God through Christ. That peace does not mean that they will have a trouble-free life. Rather it means that they now enjoy a state of spiritual wholeness and well-being that gives them strength and calmness even in the midst of suffering and trials (John 14:27; 16:33; Gal 5:22; Col 3:15; Phil 4:7).
PEKAH
The closing years of the kingdom of Israel (the northern part of the divided kingdom) were marked by the domination of Assyria. The Israelite kings Menahem and Pekahiah had survived only by buying protection from Assyria. The commander of the Israelite army, Pekah, tired of this pro-Assyrian policy, assassinated Pekahiah, seized the throne and tried to make Israel independent of Assyria (2 Kings 15:19,23-25,27). Pekah formed an alliance with Rezin, king of Syria, with the aim of withstanding Assyria. In an attempt to force Ahaz of Judah to join their alliance, Pekah and Rezin attacked Jerusalem. Ahaz, against the advice of the prophet Isaiah, went to Assyria for help. Assyria replied by conquering Syria (732 BC), then overrunning much of northern and eastern Israel and taking the people into captivity (2 Kings 15:29; 16:5-9; for details see AHAZ). Pekah’s policy had proved disastrous, and he was assassinated by Hoshea, a sympathizer with Assyria, who then became king (2 Kings 15:30).
PENTATEUCH
From early Christian times, and possibly before, the first five books of the Old Testament have collectively been known as the Pentateuch. The name comes from two Greek words, penta meaning ‘five’, and teuchos meaning ‘a volume’. The Hebrews usually referred to the whole Pentateuch as ‘the law’ (2 Chron 17:9; Neh 8:14,18; Matt 5:17; 11:13; 12:5; Luke 24:44). It was originally one continuous book, but was divided into five sections for convenience. The English titles of the five separate books are taken from the early Greek translation known as the Septuagint.
Authorship
Age-old Hebrew and Christian tradition recognizes Moses as the author of the Pentateuch, though the Pentateuch itself nowhere names its author (2 Chron 35:12; Neh 13:1; Mark 12:26; John 5:46). The Bible speaks frequently of Moses’ literary activity. He wrote down the law that Israel received from God (Exod 24:4; 34:27; Deut 31:9,24), he kept records of Israel’s history (Exod 17:14; Num 33:2) and he wrote songs and poems (Exod 15:1; Deut 31:22,30). Moses would certainly have been familiar with the family records, ancient songs and traditional stories that people had preserved and handed down from one generation to the next (cf. Gen 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10,27). Like all writers he would have used material from a variety of sources, particularly if writing about times and places other than his own (cf. Gen 26:32-33; 35:19-20; 47:26; Num 21:14).
In addition he received direct revelations from God and spoke with God face to face (Exod 32:7-8; 33:11; Num 12:6-8). In different eras, critics who reject Moses’ authorship of the Pentateuch have suggested various theories for a much later composition. Most of these theories are based on the different names used for God, the similar or contrasting features in narrative accounts, the varying features of Israel’s religious system, and the usage of certain words and phrases. Broadly speaking, these critics have suggested four independent documents that date no earlier than the period of Israel’s monarchy, and that a later editor (or editors) combined into one. The four documents are referred to respectively as J (because it speaks of God as Jehovah, or Yahweh), E (because it speaks of God as Elohim), D (because it bases its content on Deuteronomy) and P (because it deals mainly with matters of priestly interest). These theories have been argued, answered, revised and contradicted many times over. Debating the mechanics of composition, however, may not always be profitable. The important consideration is not how the Pentateuch was written, but what it means. It stands in both the Hebrew and Christian Bibles as a book whose unity is clear and whose message is the living Word of God (John 5:39,45-47; 7:19; Luke 16:31; Acts 15:21).
Message
Genesis introduces the basic issues concerning God the Creator and the people and things he created. It shows that he created human beings good and wanted them to live in harmony with him. Instead of doing so, they rebelled and God punished them. In his grace, however, he did not destroy the human race, but gave it the opportunity for a fresh start. People went the same way as before, but God still extended his favour, promising to work through one of the few remaining believers (Abraham) to bring blessing to the whole world. God promised that Abraham would produce a notable line of descendants, that those descendants would enjoy a special relationship with himself, and that he would give them a national homeland. In due course Abraham started the family and his descendants began to multiply, but through a variety of circumstances they eventually found themselves slaves in Egypt.
The book of Exodus shows that God, faithful to his promise, gave them a leader (Moses) through whom he brought them out of Egypt, gave them his law, and established them in a special covenant relationship with himself. He was their God and they were his people. Leviticus and the beginning of Numbers give details of how the people were to maintain and enjoy their covenant relationship with God. The remainder of Numbers shows how the people moved on towards the promised land, and Deuteronomy shows the life God required of them once they settled in that land. The grace of God and the sovereign choice of God are prominent themes in the Pentateuch. The deliverance from Egypt was the turning point in the people’s history, the covenant was the basis of their existence, and the law was the framework for their behaviour. The purposes of God were on their way to fulfilment (cf. Gen 12:1-3; Gal 3:16; cf. Deut 18:18-19; Acts 3:18-23).
PENTECOST
The word ‘pentecost’ means ‘fifty’, and comes from the Greek translation of the Old Testament. It refers to the Israelite harvest festival that was held fifty days after Passover. In the Old Testament this festival is called the Feast of Harvest, the Feast of Firstfruits and the Feast of Weeks. In the New Testament it is called the Feast of Pentecost (Lev 23:5-6,15-16; Acts 2:1; 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8; for details see FEASTS). Pentecost is significant in the New Testament story because on that day the church was born. Christ the Passover lamb had been sacrificed; then, fifty days later, God poured out his Spirit on that small group of disciples who were the firstfruits of his new people, the church of Jesus Christ (Acts 2:1-4; cf. 1 Cor 5:7). (Concerning the extraordinary happenings that day see BAPTISM WITH THE SPIRIT; TONGUES.)
PENUEL
One of the more important towns in Israel’s territory east of Jordan was Penuel. It was in the centre of the region popularly called Gilead, situated on the Jabbok River, close to the point where the Jabbok joins the Jordan (Gen 32:22,31). Various Israelite leaders, recognizing the strategic importance of the Jordan and the Jabbok as defence barriers, built special fortifications at Penuel (Judg 8:9,17; 1 Kings 12:25). (For map and other details see GILEAD.)
PEREA
Running down the eastern side of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea was a narrow strip of territory that in New Testament times was known as Perea. It was part of the tableland area that originally belonged to Ammon and Moab, but after Israel’s conquest was occupied by the tribes of East Manasseh, Gad and Reuben. The region in general was popularly called Gilead (see AMMON; GILEAD; MOAB). In New Testament times Perea was occupied mainly by Jews. For this reason Jews travelling between Judea and Galilee often detoured across Jordan and through Perea, rather than go through the territory of the Samaritans. Jews commonly referred to the area as ‘beyond Jordan’ (Matt 4:25; John 3:26). Jesus at times visited Perea (Matt 19:1; John 1:28; 10:40). He also visited neighbouring Decapolis, the other region that bordered Jordan’s east bank (Matt 4:25). (For a map showing the two regions see DECAPOLIS.)
PERGAMUM
The town of Pergamum was in the province of Asia, on the west coast of Asia Minor (Rev 1:4,11; for map see ASIA). The Bible does not record how or when the church there was founded, but it does mention difficulties that the church experienced towards the end of the first century. The difficulties were mainly connected with the religious system known as Emperor worship, which in the province of Asia had its headquarters in Pergamum (cf. Rev 2:13). (Concerning Emperor worship see ROME.) On the whole the Christians in Pergamum stood firm and refused to join in the Emperor worship. At least one of their number was martyred (Rev 2:12-13). There were some, however, who taught and practised Nicolaitan teaching, which encouraged Christians to join in idolatrous feasts and to practise immorality. Jesus declared he would judge those who denied him in this way, and reward those who refused to compromise with the State religion (Rev 2:14-17).
PERIZZITES
The Perizzites were one of many Canaanite groups that occupied Canaan before the Israelites drove them out (Gen 13:7; 15:20; Exod 3:8; Deut 7:1; Josh 3:10). They lived mainly in the hills of central Palestine and are found in Bible narratives concerning Bethel, Shechem and the tribal territory of Ephraim (Gen 13:2-7; 34:26-30; Josh 17:15). They were used as slaves in Solomon’s building programs and were eventually absorbed into Israel (1 Kings 9:20-21).
PERSECUTION
Those who love evil rather than good will inevitably want to persecute those who desire to live godly lives (John 3:19-20; 2 Tim 3:12). Christians should not be surprised when they suffer persecution. If they show themselves to be Christ’s people, they can expect the sort of opposition that Christ suffered. They should consider it a privilege to suffer for Christ’s sake (Matt 5:10-11; John 15:20; Acts 5:41; 2 Cor 12:10; 1 Peter 4:12-13). Both Jesus and the New Testament writers taught Christians that they should pray for their persecutors. Certainly they should not try to return evil upon those who attack them. God’s people should have confidence in him that, when they are persecuted, they will know how to act and what to say (Matt 5:44; 10:17-20; Rom 12:14; 1 Peter 2:21-24; 4:14-16).
Persecution tests the genuineness of a person’s faith, but true believers will endure it, knowing that God will not forsake them (Matt 13:21; Rom 5:3-5; 8:35; 2 Cor 4:9; 2 Thess 1:4). The early Christians proved the reality of God’s presence with them when they suffered persecution, much of which was at the hands of the Jews (Acts 4:29-31; 5:17-21; 7:54-56; 18:9-10; 2 Tim 4:17). This persecution came first from the Sadducees (Acts 4:1-3; 5:17,27-28), then from the Pharisees, whose fiery leader was the young Saul of Tarsus (Acts 7:58-8:3; 9:4; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). When Saul the persecutor was converted to Paul the Christian preacher, he himself was persecuted by the Jews, violently and unceasingly (Acts 9:15-16; 14:19-20; 16:22-24; 21:35-36; 2 Cor 11:23-25).
In his preaching Paul warned of the persecution that believers could expect; yet people continued to turn to God. And as Paul warned, they met opposition from their fellow citizens (Acts 14:22; 1 Thess 1:6; 2:13-16). During the reign of Nero the persecution of Christians became government policy throughout the Empire. Government officials and common people alike hated the Christians for their refusal to follow the practices of a society that they considered idolatrous and immoral (1 Peter 2;12; 4:12-16). So severe was the persecution that some Christians were tempted to give up their faith in the hope of avoiding trouble (Heb 10:32-36). Although official persecution later died down, it increased again towards the end of the century during the reign of the Emperor Domitian. But no matter how great the persecution, God’s people are repeatedly assured that in the end they will triumph (Rev 2:13; 6:9-11; 12:11; 19:1-2).
PERSEVERANCE
God requires of Christians not only that they believe the gospel, but also that they persevere in living according to the gospel, regardless of the difficulties they meet. Perseverance is proof of the genuineness of faith and leads to spiritual maturity (John 8:31; Acts 14:22; Rom 5:3-4; Col 1:21-23; Heb 3:12-14; 4:1- 11; 6:11-12). When Jesus called people to believe in him, he made it clear that he was calling them into a continuous relationship with himself. Belief involved more than just a momentary decision; it involved a life of following him as a true disciple to the end (Mark 8:34-38; 13:13; Luke 9:57-62; John 15:4-6; cf. 6:60,66-68).
In one of his parables Jesus showed that some people profess to be believers, but later, by their lack of perseverance, prove not to be (Mark 4:15-20). Christians are able to persevere because of the power of God working within them (Phil 1:6; Col 1:11; 1 Peter 1:5; Jude 24; Rev 3:10). In addition to giving his people the promise of his power, God demands that they exercise self-discipline and effort. Christians must be on their guard and persistent in prayer if they are to endure firmly to the end (Luke 21:36; Col 4:2). If people have true faith in God, they will prove it by their steadfast trust in his power and promises.
Their perseverance is not something God rewards by giving them salvation, but something that gives proof of their salvation. It shows that their faith is genuine (Mark 13:13,22-23; Luke 21:36; Phil 3:13-14; 2 Tim 4:7-8). At times people may be tempted to give up their Christian commitment. The source of their troubles may be the trials of life, persecution, desire for personal prosperity, worry, laziness or false teaching (Mark 4:17-18; 13:13; 1 Tim 4:1; 6:10; Heb 2:1; 10:32-39). Christians can fight against these temptations by training themselves in godliness, resisting the pressures of the world, continuing steadfastly in the truth they have believed, learning more of God through the Scriptures, and giving themselves wholeheartedly to whatever work God has entrusted to them (2 Thess 2:14-15; 1 Tim 4:7,15; 6:11-12; 2 Tim 2:10; 3:14-17; Heb 4:14; 6:1-3; 10:23; Jude 20-21). The outcome of Christian endurance will be the experience of salvation in its fullest expression at the return of Jesus Christ (Rom 8:24-25; 2 Tim 4:7-8; 1 Peter 1:6-9; Rev 2:26-28). The expectation of Christ’s return is therefore a constant incentive to perseverance (Matt 24:45-51; 1 Thess 5:23; 2 Tim 2:11-12; James 5:8; 2 Peter 3:14,17; 1 John 2:28).
PERSIA
The boundaries of Persia varied from era to era, but the name Persia is usually associated with the territory on the northern side of the Persian Gulf. In ancient times the north-western part of this territory (the area that bordered the Mesopotamian Plain) was known as Elam (Gen 14:1). At times the Bible makes a distinction between Elamites and Persians (Ezra 4:9), but usually Elam is simply another name for Persia (Isa 11:11; 21:2; Jer 25:25; 49:35-39). Regions to the north of Elam that were later closely allied with Persia were Media and Parthia (Esther 1:18; Acts 2:9). Persia’s period of greatest power was during the reign of the Emperor Cyrus. Having come to the Persian throne about 558 BC, Cyrus proceeded to enlarge his territory, as one by one he conquered kingdoms large and small. One of his greatest triumphs was the conquest of Media.
Media then became Persia’s strongest ally, and its leaders shared in the civil and military leadership of the expanding Persian Empire. So closely were the Medes and the Persians associated that people sometimes used their names interchangeably. The greatest victory for the Medo-Persian army came in 539 BC, when it conquered Babylon and Cyrus became undisputed ruler of the region (Isa 13:17; 21:1-10; 44:28; 45:1; Jer 51:11,28; Dan 5:30-31; 8:20; 9:1; 10:1). Upon becoming ruler of Babylon, Cyrus quickly gave permission for all the people held captive by Babylon in foreign lands to return to their homelands. As a result many of the Jews returned to Jerusalem, where they soon began rebuilding the temple and the city (Ezra 1:1-4). They completed the temple in 516 BC, in the reign of a later Emperor, Darius (Ezra 6:14-15). (This Darius is a different person from Darius the Mede, the man who led the Medo-Persian attack on Babylon over twenty years previously; cf. Dan 5:30-31.) When at times non-Jewish people of the region opposed and persecuted the Jews in Jerusalem, the Persian rulers protected the Jews (Ezra 5:3-6:12; Neh 2:9-10; Esther 8:9-14).
The Persian government even gave the Jews funds to help carry out their program for the reconstruction of their nation and religion (Ezra 6:8-10; 7:14-16,21-24; Neh 2:7-8). At times the Emperor gave his personal support to Jewish leaders who went from Persia to Jerusalem to teach and reform the Jewish people (Ezra 7:11-20; Neh 2:5-8). The capital of Persia was Susa, or Shushan (Esther 1:1-3; 2:3; 9:11; Dan 8:2). The Empire was divided into provinces ruled by Persian or Median nobles (satraps), with local people under them as governors and other officials (Ezra 4:8-10; 5:3,14; 6:2; 7:21; Neh 2:9; 5:14; 7:2; Esther 3:1; 8:9; 10:3). Persian rule lasted about two hundred years, but the biblical narratives cover little more than the first half of this period. Several Emperors feature in the record. Emperor Reign BC Events and references Cyrus 558-530 Babylon conquered (539); Jews released; temple begun (538) (Ezra 1:1-4; 3:7; 5:13-15; Isa 44:28; 45:1; Dan 6:28; 10:1). Cambyses 530-522 Darius 522-486 Temple finished (516) (Ezra 4:24; 5:3-6:15; Hag 1:1; Zech 1:1) Ahasuerus 486-465 Jews given increased liberty (Esther 1:1-10:3) Artaxerxes 465-424 Special powers given to Ezra (458) and Nehemiah (445) (Ezra 7:1-13,21; Neh 2:1-8; 5:14; 13:6)
PETER
Simon Peter was one of the earliest believers in Jesus. Like his brother Andrew, he was probably a disciple of John the Baptist, till John directed them to Jesus (John 1:40-41; cf. Acts 1:15,21-22). Jesus immediately saw the man’s leadership qualities and gave him a new name, Peter (or Cephas), meaning ‘a rock’ (John 1:42). (The two names are from the words for ‘rock’ in Greek and Aramaic respectively.) This initial meeting with Jesus took place in the Jordan Valley (John 1:28-29,35). Not long after, there was another meeting, this time in Galilee, when Peter became one of the first believers to leave their normal occupations and become active followers of Jesus (Matt 4:18-22).
When Jesus later selected twelve men from among his followers and appointed them as his special apostles, Peter was at the head of the list (Matt 10:2). Peter and Jesus The son of a man named John (or Jonah) (Matt 16:17; John 1:42; 21:15), Peter came from Bethsaida on the shore of Lake Galilee (John 1:44). Either he or his wife’s parents also had a house in the neighbouring lakeside town of Capernaum, which became a base for Jesus’ work in the area (Mark 1:21,29-30; 2:1). Peter and Andrew worked as fishermen on the lake, in partnership with another pair of brothers, James and John (Matt 4:18; Luke 5:10).
These men all became apostles of Jesus. Although they had never studied in the Jewish religious colleges, they developed skills in teaching and debate through their association with Jesus (Acts 4:13). From the beginning Peter showed himself to be energetic, self-confident and decisive. Sometimes he spoke or acted with too much haste and had to be rebuked (Matt 14:28-31; 16:22-23; 19:27-28; Mark 9:5- 7; Luke 5:4-5; John 13:6-11; 18:10-11; 21:7), but he never lost heart. He went through some bitter experiences before he learnt of the weakness that lay behind his over-confidence. Jesus knew that Peter had sufficient quality of character to respond to the lessons and so become a stronger person in the end (Mark 14:29,66-72; Luke 22:31-34).
As Jesus’ ministry progressed, Peter, James and John became recognized as a small group to whom Jesus gave special responsibilities and privileges (Mark 5:37; 9:2; 14:33). Peter was the natural leader of the twelve and was often their spokesman (Mark 1:36-37; 10:27-28; Luke 12:41; John 6:67-68; 13:24; 21:2-3; Acts 1:15-16). On the occasion when Jesus questioned his disciples to see if they were convinced he was the Messiah, Jesus seems to have accepted Peter’s reply as being on behalf of the group. In responding to Peter, Jesus was telling the apostles that they would form the foundation on which he would build his unconquerable church (Matt 16:13-18; cf. Eph 2:20). When Peter’s testing time came, however, he denied Jesus three times (Luke 22:61-62). Jesus therefore paid special attention to Peter in the days after the resurrection. He appeared to Peter before he appeared to the rest of the apostles (Luke 24:34; 1 Cor 15:5; cf. Mark 16:7), and later gained from Peter a public statement of his devotion to his Lord (John 21:15).
In accepting Peter’s statement and entrusting to him the care of God’s people, Jesus showed the other disciples that he had forgiven and restored Peter. At the same time he told Peter why he needed such strong devotion. As a prominent leader in the difficult days of the church’s beginning, Peter could expect to receive the full force of the opposition (John 21:17-19; cf. Luke 22:32). Peter and the early church The change in Peter was evident in the early days of the church. He took the lead when important issues had to be dealt with (Acts 1:15; 5:3,9), and he was the chief preacher (Acts 2:14; 3:12; 8:20). But no longer did he fail when his devotion to Jesus was tested. He was confident in the living power of the risen Christ (Acts 2:33; 3:6,16; 4:10,29-30). Even when dragged before the Jewish authorities, he boldly denounced them and unashamedly declared his total commitment to Jesus (Acts 4:8-13,19-20; 5:18- 21,29-32,40-42). On one occasion the provincial governor tried to kill him, but through the prayers of the church he escaped unharmed (Acts 12:1-17; cf. 1 Peter 2:21-23; 4:19).
Peter had been brought up an orthodox Jew and did not immediately break his association with traditional Jewish practices (Acts 3:1; 5:12-17). Yet he saw that the church was something greater than the temple, and he readily accepted Samaritans into the church on the same bases as the Jews (Acts 8:14- 17). He showed his increasing generosity of spirit by preaching in Samaritan villages and in the towns of Lydda and Joppa on the coastal plain (Acts 8:25; 9:32,36). In spite of all this, a special vision from God was necessary to convince Peter that uncircumcised Gentiles were to be accepted into the church freely, without their first having to submit to the Jewish law (Acts 10:9-16). As a result of the vision he went to Caesarea, where a God-fearing Roman centurion, along with his household, believed the gospel and received the Holy Spirit the same as Jewish believers (Acts 10:17-48). More traditionally minded Jews in the Jerusalem church criticized Peter for his broadmindedness. Peter silenced them by describing his vision and telling them of the events at Caesarea (Acts 11:1-18). Another factor in Peter’s changing attitudes towards Gentiles was the influence of Paul. The two men had met when Paul visited Jerusalem three years after his conversion (Gal 1:18). They met again eleven years later, when Peter and other Jerusalem leaders expressed fellowship with Paul and Barnabas in their mission to the Gentiles (Gal 2:1,9). Although Peter understood his mission as being primarily to the Jews (Gal 2:7), he visited the mainly Gentile church in Syrian Antioch and ate freely with the Gentile Christians. When Jewish traditionalists criticized him for ignoring Jewish food laws, he withdrew from the Gentiles.
Paul rebuked him publicly and Peter readily acknowledged his error (Gal 2:11-14). When church leaders later met in Jerusalem to discuss the matter of Gentiles in the church, Peter openly and forthrightly supported Paul (Acts 15:7-11). A wider ministry Little is recorded of Peter’s later movements. He travelled over a wide area (accompanied by his wife) and preached in many churches, including, it seems, Corinth (1 Cor 1:12; 9:5). Early records indicate that he did much to evangelize the northern parts of Asia Minor. The churches he helped establish there were the churches to which he sent the letters known as 1 and 2 Peter (1 Peter 1:1; 2 Peter 3:1). During this time Mark worked closely with Peter. In fact, Peter regarded Mark as his ‘son’ (1 Peter 5:13). There is evidence that at one stage they visited Rome and helped the church there. When Peter left for other regions, Mark remained in Rome, where he helped the Christians by recording for them the story of Jesus as they had heard it from Peter. (For the influence of Peter in Mark’s account see MARK, GOSPEL OF.) Later, Peter revisited Rome. Mark was again with him, and so was Silas, who acted as Peter’s secretary in writing a letter to the churches of northern Asia Minor. In this letter Peter followed the early Christian practice of referring to Rome as Babylon (1 Peter 1:1; 5:12-13). The letter shows how incidents and teachings that Peter witnessed during Jesus’ life continued to have a strong influence on his preaching (cf. 1 Peter 1:22 with John 15:12; cf. 1 Peter 2:7 with Matt 21:42; cf. 1 Peter 2:12 with Matt 5:16; cf. 1 Peter 3:9 with Matt 5:39; cf. 1 Peter 4:15-16 with Mark 14:66-72; cf. 1 Peter 4:7 with Luke 22:45-46; cf. 1 Peter 4:19 with Luke 23:46; cf. 1 Peter 5:1 with Mark 9:2-8; cf. 1 Peter 5:2 with John 21:16; cf. 1 Peter 5:5 with John 13:4,14; cf. 1 Peter 5:7 with Matt 6:25). At this time Nero was Emperor and his great persecution was about to break upon the Christians. Peter wrote his First Letter to prepare Christians for what lay ahead. He wrote his Second Letter to give various reminders and warn against false teaching. (For details see PETER, LETTERS OF.) By the time he wrote his Second Letter he was in prison, awaiting the execution that Jesus had spoken of about thirty years earlier (2 Peter 1:13-15; cf. John 21 1:18-19). According to tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome some time during the period AD 65-69.
PHARAOH
Egyptian kings were known by the title Pharaoh. To the Egyptian people Pharaoh was a god-king, one who embodied a god during his life and went to the world of the gods at his death (see EGYPT). The Bible, however, treats the various Pharaohs as it treats the kings of other nations. They were mere human beings under the sovereign control of God (Rom 9:17; cf. Isa 44:28). Some Pharaohs are mentioned favourably in the Bible. The Pharaoh whom Abraham visited was more honest in his behaviour than Abraham (Gen 12:10-20), and the Pharaoh of Joseph’s time was sensible and generous (Gen 41:37-45,55; 45:16-20; 47:20-22; 50:4-6). Later, other Pharaohs oppressed the Israelites and made them slaves. One even tried to kill all their babies (Exod 1:8-16,22). The most infamous of the Pharaohs was the man who opposed Moses and hardened his heart against God.
From Moses’ first meeting with him, he showed that he despised God and had no intention of releasing the captive Israelites (Exod 5:1-2). He was determined to resist God at all costs, in spite of the repeated opportunities God gave him to repent and in spite of the warnings God gave him through a series of plagues (Exod 7:11-13; 8:8,15,28-32). By confirming Pharaoh in his hardness of heart, God showed the greatness of Pharaoh’s evil and the justice with which he punished it (Exod 9:12; Rom 9:14-18; see PLAGUE). In the final plague on Egypt, the firstborn in all Egyptian families, including Pharaoh’s, died. This prompted Pharaoh at last to release the Israelites (Exod 11:1-9; 12:29-32). When Pharaoh changed his mind and tried to recapture the Israelites, he and his soldiers were killed in a mighty judgment at the Red Sea (Exod 14:5-9,28). Most of the remaining Pharaohs of the Bible story are mentioned in relation to Egypt’s political and military involvement with Judah during the time of the Israelite monarchy (e.g. 1 Kings 3:1; 11:40; 2 Kings 18:21; 23:29; see JUDAH, TRIBE AND KINGDOM). Some of them feature in prophetic announcements of judgment upon Egypt (e.g. Ezek 29:1-32:32; see EGYPT).
PHARISEES
The Pharisees were one of the two main parties within Judaism in New Testament times, the other being the Sadducees. The origins of the two parties go back to the second century BC, when Greek influence in Jewish affairs created divisions among the Jewish people. Most of the Pharisees came from the working classes and tried to preserve traditional Jewish practices from the corruption of foreign ideas and political ambition. The Sadducees came mainly from the wealthy upper classes. Their chief concern was not with following tradition, but with using the religious and social structures of Jewish society to gain controlling power for themselves. (For fuller details concerning the origins of the two parties see SADDUCEES.)
Lawkeeping Once
the Sadducees had gained priestly power, they furthered their own interests by emphasizing the need to keep the temple rituals. The Pharisees, by contrast, emphasized the responsibility to keep the law in all aspects of life, not just in temple rituals. In this the Pharisees supported the traditions that the teachers of the law (the scribes) had developed and taught. The scribes had expanded the law of Moses into a system that consisted of countless laws dealing with such matters as sabbath-keeping (Matt 12:1-2; Mark 3:1-6; Luke 13:10-14), ritual cleanliness (Matt 23:25; Mark 7:1-9), fasting (Luke 18:11-12), tithing (Matt 23:23) and the taking of oaths (Matt 23:16-22; see also SCRIBES).
Being members of such a strict party, many of the Pharisees regarded themselves alone as being the true people of God, and kept apart from those who did not follow their beliefs and practices. The name ‘Pharisees’ meant ‘the separated ones’ (Acts 15:5; 26:5; cf. Gal 2:12). The Pharisees criticized Jesus for not keeping their laws (Matt 12:10-14; 15:1-2; John 9:16), but Jesus condemned the Pharisees for not keeping God’s law. They were more concerned with maintaining their traditions than with producing the kind of character and behaviour that God’s law aimed at (Matt 5:20; 15:1-10; 23:23-26). They were concerned with outward show more than with correct attitudes of heart. They wanted to impress people more than please God (Matt 23:2,5,27-28). Jesus’ criticism of the Pharisees caused them to hate him. They even cooperated with the Sadducees (the priests) to get rid of him (John 11:47-53; 18:3). Although the Sadducees had the chief positions in the Sanhedrin (the Jewish Council that condemned Jesus), many Pharisees were Sanhedrin members. At least one of the Pharisees, Nicodemus, became a believer in Jesus (John 3:1; 7:45-52; 19:38-40; see SANHEDRIN).
Other beliefs and practices
While lawkeeping was the Pharisees’ main concern, other distinctive beliefs added to the tension in their relationship with the Sadducees. The Pharisees, for example, believed in the continued existence of the soul after death, the resurrection of the body and the existence of angelic beings, whereas the Sadducees did not (Matt 22:23; Acts 23:8). The Pharisees’ belief in the resurrection was probably one reason for their favourable attitude to Christians in the early days of the church. They did not object to multitudes of people believing in the resurrection of Jesus. Although the Sadducees angrily opposed the Christians, the Pharisees seem to have regarded the Christians as sincerely religious Jews with orthodox beliefs and practices (Acts 2:46-47; 4:1- 2; 5:12,17,25-28).
Another belief of the Pharisees, also in contrast to the beliefs of the Sadducees, was that all events were under the control of God, and no person had independent right to interfere with what God had decreed. They therefore thought it wise not to oppose the Christians, lest they oppose a movement that had God’s approval (Acts 5:34-39). This attitude of tolerance towards Christians changed suddenly when the Pharisees understood Stephen to have spoken against the law of Moses. They turned violently against the Christians, and in fact it was a Pharisee, Saul of Tarsus, who led the persecution (Acts 6:13-14; 7:57-58; 8:3; 23:6). After the destruction of Jerusalem by Rome in AD 70, the Sadducees and the smaller Jewish parties died out. This left the Pharisees in full control of the Jewish religion. A separate Pharisee party was no longer necessary, for Judaism as a whole now followed the Pharisee tradition.
PHILADELPHIA
Situated on the edge of a fertile region of the Roman province of Asia, Philadelphia was the outlet for the produce of the region. There is no record of how the church there was established, but it was only small and it suffered much from the persecutions of the Jews (Rev 3:7-9). God assured the Christians that they, not the persecutors from the synagogue, were his true people. He would protect his church and reward those in it who remained faithful to him (Rev 3:9-13). (For map see ASIA.)
PHILIP
There were two men named Philip among the early disciples of Jesus. These are commonly referred to as Philip the apostle and Philip the evangelist. (Concerning two other men named Philip, who were members of Herod’s family, see HEROD.) Philip the apostle came from the fishing town of Bethsaida on the shore of Lake Galilee. When Jesus first went to Galilee at the beginning of his ministry, Philip was among the first to respond to his call. Immediately, he brought Nathanael to Jesus (John 1:43-46). Later, Jesus appointed Philip one of his twelve apostles (Matt 10:3).
Philip features in the story of Jesus’ feeding of the five thousand (John 6:5- 7), but he was slow to understand how Jesus’ miraculous works demonstrated the unique relationship between Jesus and his Father (John 14:8-11). Just before the last Passover, Philip helped a group of visiting Greek worshippers to meet Jesus (John 12:20-22). A few weeks later he witnessed Jesus’ return to his Father (Acts 1:9-13). Philip the evangelist was one of the seven men whom the Jerusalem church chose to administer its welfare program (Acts 6:1-6). After the killing of Stephen and the expulsion of Christians from Jerusalem, Philip went to Samaria, where many responded to his preaching (Acts 8:4-13). He then travelled south towards Gaza and led a God-fearing Ethiopian official to faith in Jesus Christ (Acts 8:26- 39). From there he moved north along the Mediterranean coast, preaching in all the towns as far as Caesarea (Acts 8:40). The next mention of Philip is about twenty-five years later, when Paul’s party stayed with him in Caesarea for a few days. He had four daughters who had the gift of prophecy (Acts 21:8-9).
PHILIPPI
The city of Philippi was an important administrative centre in Macedonia, the northern part of Greece. (For map see MACEDONIA.) It was named after Philip of Macedon (the father of Alexander the Great), who conquered it about 356 BC and made it into one of his strategic cities.
During the Roman civil war, Philippi was the scene of a vital battle in 31 BC, after which the victor gave the city the status of a Roman colony (Acts 16:12). (For the privileges that citizens of a Roman colony enjoyed see ROME, subheading ‘Roman citizenship’.) Philippi was on the main route from Rome to Asia Minor. Its port was Neapolis (Acts 16:11-12). Paul and Silas visited Philippi on Paul’s second missionary journey, and found their first converts among a group of God-fearing Gentiles who met for prayer at the river bank (Acts 16:13-15).
When the missionaries healed a demonized girl, their opponents stirred up trouble and had them thrown into prison (Acts 16:16-24). But this resulted in more people turning to Christ (Acts 16:31-34). Though released the next day, Paul and Silas had to leave the city, but they left behind the beginnings of the church in Philippi (Acts 16:39-40). Paul appears to have visited Philippi twice on his third missionary journey – once when travelling through Macedonia south to Achaia (Acts 20:1-2), and once when returning through Macedonia to Troas (Acts 20:6). He probably visited Philippi again after release from his first Roman imprisonment (1 Tim 1:3). The Philippian church saw itself as a partner with Paul in his missionary work and helped support him financially (Phil 1:7-8; 4:14-18). The church brought Paul much joy and drew from him warm expressions of true friendship (Phil 1:4; 4:1; see PHILIPPIANS, LETTER TO THE).
PHILISTIA, PHILISTINES
The territory of Philistia consisted largely of the plainlands that stretched along the Mediterranean coast of Palestine. The region was known in ancient times as ‘the land of the Philistines’, from which we get the modern name ‘Palestine’. The coast road from Egypt to Palestine was known as ‘the way of the land of the Philistines’, and the Mediterranean Sea was sometimes called ‘the Sea of the Philistines’ (Exod 13:17; 23:31).
Establishment in Palestine
It is believed that the Philistines came originally from Crete, known in ancient times as Caphtor. They were well established in Palestine by the time they begin to feature in the Bible story (Gen 10:14; Deut 2:23; Jer 47:4; Amos 9:7). They followed the Canaanite religions, and the Bible treats them as native Canaanites. They worshipped the common gods and goddesses of Canaan (the Baals and the Ashtaroth), as well as their own local Baal gods such as Dagon and Baal-zebub (Judg 16:23; 1 Sam 5:1-5; 31:8-13; 2 Kings 1:2; 1 Chron 10:8-12; see BAAL; BEELZEBUL; DAGON). There were five main population centres in the Philistine territory, and these became known as ‘the five cities of the Philistines’ – Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath and Ekron. The leaders of these cities were known as ‘the five lords of the Philistines’ (Josh 13:2-3; Judg 3:3; 16:5,8,27,30; 1 Sam 5:11; 6:4,12,16-18; 7:7; 29:6-7).
Involvement with Israel
Abraham, and later Isaac, settled for a time in Philistine territory in the south of Canaan. Although they had reasonably good relations with the Philistine leader, their herdsmen and the Philistine herdsmen were frequently in conflict (Gen 20:1-18; 21:25-34; 26:1-33; see ABIMELECH). When the Israelites under Joshua conquered Canaan, they took control of most of the hill country but could not gain similar control over the plain country occupied by the Philistines. As a result the Philistines reasserted their independence and became a source of trouble during Israel’s early days in Canaan (Josh 10:41; 11:21-22; 13:3; Judg 3:1-3,31; 10:6-7; 13:1; 14:1-15:20). The Philistines suffered a major setback when Samson brought about the death of all their leading civilian and military rulers (Judg 16:1-31). After they had recovered, the Philistines attacked Israel and captured the ark of the covenant (1 Sam 4:1-11). But the ark brought so much trouble to the Philistines that they soon returned it (1 Sam 5:1-7:2). Samuel then led Israel to national repentance, after which Israel defeated the Philistines and seized some of their cities (1 Sam 7:5-14). The Philistines soon regained their territory and even advanced into Israel’s hill country. Some years later, after Saul became king, the Israelites drove them out (1 Sam 13:19-14:47).
This did not mean that Saul was free from the Philistine threat. Conflicts continued to arise (1 Sam 14:52; 17:1-54; 23:27-28). These conflicts brought military fame to David, though at the same time they brought him jealousy and hatred from Saul (1 Sam 18:6-9,14,30). In fleeing from Saul, David on two occasions found refuge in the Philistine city of Gath, and even used Gath as a base from which to operate his private army (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12). David pleased the Philistine ruler with his raids on various tribal peoples (1 Sam 27:8-12), but he was prevented from fighting for the Philistines against Israel (1 Sam 29:1-4,11). When Saul died in battle against the Philistines, David became Israel’s new king (1 Sam 31:1-7; 2 Sam 2:4; 5:1). David wasted no time in driving the Philistines from the Israelite hill country that they had seized. He smashed their power decisively, so that they were never again a serious threat to Israel (2 Sam 3:18; 5:17- 25; 8:1). After the death of David, Israel’s control over the Philistines relaxed and the two peoples lived independently side by side with only occasional conflicts. Any conflicts usually were concerned with border towns that changed hands from time to time (1 Kings 15:27; 2 Kings 8:22; 2 Chron 17:11; 26:6). Among other nations that invaded Philistia at different times were Syria (2 Kings 12:17), Assyria (Isa 20:1), Egypt (Jer 47:1) and Greece. As foretold by the prophets, the nation was eventually destroyed (Jer 47:4-7; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; Zeph 2:4-7; Zech 9:5-8).
PHINEHAS
Of the biblical characters named Phinehas, the most important was the zealous priest who was Aaron’s grandson (Exod 6:25). Phinehas’ father, Eleazar, had succeeded Aaron as high priest (Num 20:25-26), and Phinehas proved himself to be a loyal supporter. When Israelite men brought God’s judgment upon themselves through their immorality with foreign women, Phinehas dealt with the rebels. His swift action saved Israel from destruction (Num 25:1-8; see also 31:1-7). God rewarded Phinehas’ zeal by promising that his descendants would become the chief priestly family in Israel (Num 25:10-13; cf. Judg 20:27-28). Though zealous for God’s standards, Phinehas proved to be fair and reasonable when he had to listen to complaints and settle disputes (Josh 22:13-16,30-34). A later priest named Phinehas had no concern at all for God’s standards. He and his brother, who were sons of the priest Eli, corrupted the priesthood so badly that God removed them in a dramatic judgment. The two were killed the same day (1 Sam 1:3; 2:12-17,34; 4:4,11).
PHOENICIA
To the north of Palestine, along the narrow coastal strip between the Mediterranean Sea and the Lebanon Range, was the land known in Bible times as Phoenicia. Today the land falls largely within the country known as Lebanon, though the Bible most commonly refers to it by the names of its chief towns, Tyre and Sidon (Ezra 3:7). Other important towns were Zarephath and Byblos (1 Kings 17:9). The wealth of the Phoenicians came partly from their fleets of merchant ships and partly from the large forests of cedar trees in the Lebanon Range (see LEBANON).
Commercial power
Tyre and Sidon appear to have been founded in the period 3000-2500 BC (Gen 10:19). When Israel conquered Canaan about 1240 BC, Tyre and Sidon withstood the invasion and remained independent of Israel throughout most of their history. They were Israel’s closest northern neighbours (Tyre was almost on the border; Josh 19:29) and, apart from the occasional conflict, lived alongside Israel fairly peaceably (Judg 18:7; cf. 10:12). One of the greatest Phoenician kings, Hiram (who reigned from 979 to 945 BC), had very close trade relations with the Israelite kings, David and Solomon (2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kings 5:1,12). He supplied timber, stone and craftsmen for Solomon’s extensive building programs (1 Kings 5:8-12; 7:13-14; 9:11) and joined with Solomon in developing a profitable trade transport. Goods from Mediterranean countries were received at Tyre, taken overland to Israel’s Red Sea port of Ezion-geber, then shipped east in the kings’ jointly owned fleet.
Goods that the ships brought back from the east brought further profits to the two kings (1 Kings 9:26-28; 10:11,22; cf. 22:48). Phoenicia’s ships were beautifully made (Ezek 27:3-7) and were sailed by skilful seamen (1 Kings 9:27; Ezek 27:8-9). They carried a huge variety of goods (Ezek 27:12-25), which so enriched Phoenicia that other nations often tried to break through its defences and capture its wealth (Ezek 26:3-4,7-14; 27:10-11). Religious influence In the century after Hiram, another Phoenician king, Ethbaal, became involved in Israel’s affairs when he gave his daughter Jezebel to be the wife of the Israelite king Ahab (about 874 BC). Ethbaal was also high priest of the Baal religion in Phoenicia, and Jezebel soon set about making Phoenician Baalism the official religion of Israel (1 Kings 16:31-33). This Phoenician Baalism, centred as it was on the Baal god Melqart, was far more dangerous to Israel than the local Baalism practised by the country people in Canaan (see BAAL). The ministry of Elijah and Elisha was specifically concerned with opposing the Phoenician Baalism, by preserving the faithful minority in Israel and initiating judgment on the unfaithful majority (1 Kings 19:13-18; see ELIJAH; ELISHA). Phoenician Baalism was later wiped out from Israel by the ruthless Jehu (2 Kings 9:11-10:36). However, through the marriage of Jezebel’s daughter to the king of Judah, Phoenician Baalism had spread to Judah (2 Kings 8:16-18). Again it was dramatically removed, though with less bloodshed (2 Kings 11:1-21).
Judgment and blessing
With the wealth it had obtained through clever trading, Phoenicia saw itself as all-powerful, a god among the nations. Because of its arrogance, God assured it of a fitting punishment (Isa 23:1-18; Ezek 28:1-9,16-18,21-23; Zech 9:2-4). Phoenicia’s chief oppression of Israel was not through military might but through commercial power. It heartlessly seized Jerusalem’s wealth and even traded Israelite war prisoners solely for monetary profit (Joel 3:4-6; Amos 1:9). In fulfilment of the judgments God announced on Phoenicia, the nation suffered repeatedly over the following centuries. In 587 BC the Babylonians besieged the main cities (Jer 27:3-6; 47:4). They captured Sidon that year, but found Tyre more difficult to capture.
This was mainly because the city was in two parts, one on the mainland coast, the other on an island a short distance from the shore. The Babylonians finally took the city in 574 BC, but they received very little reward, for the people of Tyre had apparently managed to ship out much of their wealth during the years of siege (Ezek 29:18). After the fall of Babylon to Persia (539 BC), the Phoenician cities recovered and enjoyed a lengthy period of prosperity. Eventually they fell to Alexander the Great, Sidon in 333 BC, Tyre the year after. In taking Tyre, Alexander first destroyed the mainland city, then emptied the rubble into the sea to form a road by which he attacked the island city. The inhabitants who previously thought they were safe were then slaughtered in a terrible bloodbath (cf. Ezek 26:3-6,12-14). Once more the cities of Phoenicia recovered. In spite of further conflicts, they were well populated in New Testament times, though under the overlordship of Rome (Luke 6:17; Acts 12:20). Jesus visited the region on at least one occasion (Mark 7:24,26), and people from the region visited Galilee to hear Jesus teach (Mark 3:8). In the early days of the church, when fierce persecution drove the Christians from Jerusalem, many of them fled to the cities of Phoenicia. There they preached the gospel and established churches (Acts 11:19). Paul enjoyed a close fellowship with the Phoenician churches and visited them whenever possible (Acts 15:3; 21:2-6; 27:3).
PHRYGIA
Originally a small kingdom in Asia Minor, Phrygia was divided in two when the Romans redrew the provincial boundaries in Asia Minor. Under the Roman administration the western part of Phrygia, which included the towns of Colossae, Laodicea and Hierapolis, fell within the province of Asia. The eastern part fell within the province of Galatia (Acts 2:10; 16:6; 18:23). (For maps see ASIA; GALATIA.)
PHYLACTERIES
When God told the people of Israel through Moses that they were to bind his laws upon their hands and between their eyes, he was no doubt emphasizing that his people were to live in the constant remembrance of his law. Not only their actions but also their thoughts were to be governed by the law of God (Exod 13:9,16; Deut 6:8; 11:18). Taking God’s instructions literally, Israelites of later times wrote selected commands of the law on small strips of cloth or parchment, placed these strips in small leather boxes called phylacteries, and bound the phylacteries on to their arms or foreheads. Jesus condemned those Pharisees and scribes who wore extra large phylacteries to try to impress people with their apparent devotion to God (Matt 23:5).
PILATE
In the Roman government of Palestine, the regions of Judea and Samaria were governed by procurators, or governors, sent out from Rome. (Galilee and other parts to the north and east were governed by Rome through the sons of Herod the Great.) Pilate governed Judea and Samaria from AD 26 to 37 (Luke 3:1). His headquarters were at Caesarea, though during the Jewish festivals he moved to Jerusalem to keep order in the city (Matt 27:27; see PRAETORIUM). Early records indicate that Pilate hated the Jews, and on occasions deliberately provoked them to riot by displaying images of Roman gods in Jerusalem. In one incident he massacred some of the Galilean Jews who had created a disturbance while in Jerusalem for one of the festivals (Luke 13:1-2).
This may have contributed to the hatred that existed between Pilate and Herod Antipas, the governor of Galilee (Luke 23:6-12). Besides being cruel, Pilate was a coward. This is seen clearly in the event for which he is chiefly remembered, the crucifixion of Jesus. The Jewish Council, the Sanhedrin, had earlier condemned Jesus to death for blasphemy, but it had no power to carry out the death sentence. Only the Roman governor could authorize execution. The Jews therefore worded their accusation to try to convince Pilate that Jesus was a traitor to Rome and should be executed (Luke 22:66-23:5). Pilate knew that Jesus was not a political rebel and that the Jews had handed him over because they were jealous of his religious following (Luke 23:4-5,14-15; Matt 27:18).
His knowledge of Jesus’ innocence only increased his crime in condemning Jesus. He had tried to calm the Jews with offers that he hoped would please them while enabling him to release Jesus, but the Jews refused his offers (Luke 23:16; Matt 27:15-23). Pilate’s concern was only for himself. His great fear was that he could be in trouble with the Emperor if a riot broke out. Therefore, to satisfy the Jews and protect his own interests, he crucified the man he knew to be innocent, and released the man he knew to be a murderer (John 19:12,16; Luke 23:24-25). A few years later Pilate was involved in another religious conflict when he slaughtered a number of Samaritans on their sacred mountain. He was ordered back to Rome to answer for his actions, and never returned to Judea. According to tradition he died by committing suicide.
PILGRIM
See FOREIGNER.
PISGAH
It seems that Pisgah is not the name of a particular locality, but an ordinary Hebrew word used for the peak of a hill or mountain. Usually it is a peak that gives a good view over the surrounding countryside (Num 21:20; 23:13-14). The most commonly known Pisgah is the peak of Mt Nebo in the Abarim Range east of Jordan. This was the peak from which Moses viewed the land of Canaan before he died (Deut 3:27; 32:49; 34:1; see ABARIM).
PISIDIA
Pisidia was a mountainous region in the south of the Roman province of Galatia. Its most important town was Antioch, where Paul established a church that spread the gospel throughout the region (Acts 13:14,49; 14:24). (For map and other details see ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA; GALATIA.)
PLAGUE
Different versions of the Bible use a variety of words to describe the many disasters, plagues, diseases and sicknesses that afflict people (e.g. Exod 8:2; 9:3; 1 Kings 8:37; Ps 91:6,10; Jer 14:12; Luke 7:21; 21:11; see also DISEASE). The ten plagues of Egypt were judgments of God on the stubborn nation and its king. Both people and king were bitterly opposed to Yahweh, the God of Israel, and were devoted followers of Yahweh’s real enemies, the Egyptian gods (Exod 9:27; 12:12). These were gods of nature and were therefore connected with the Nile River, upon which Egypt depended entirely for its agricultural life.
God may have used the physical characteristics of the Nile Valley to produce the plagues, but the timing, intensity and extent of the plagues showed clearly that they were judgments sent directly by God (Exod 8:21- 23,31; 9:1-6,22,33). God in his mercy gave advance notice of the plagues and consistently gave Pharaoh the chance to repent; but the longer Pharaoh delayed, the more he increased the judgment that was to fall on him (Exod 9:15-19). The tenth plague was God’s final great judgment on Egypt and at the same time his act of redemption for his people. Previously the Israelites escaped the plagues without having to do anything, but this time their safety depended upon carrying out God’s commands. Their redemption involved faith and obedience (Exod 12:1-13; see PASSOVER).
POETRY
Much of the Old Testament is written in poetry. This applies especially to the Psalms, the wisdom books and the prophetical books, though poems and songs are scattered throughout the prose narratives of other book (see SINGING). Unlike English poetry, Hebrew poetry has no rhyme or metre. It relies for its expression and style upon a rhythm of sound and thought produced by a careful arrangement of words and sentences. The form that is most common in the Bible is called parallelism. This form can be varied and developed in many ways, but basically it consists of sentences arranged so as to balance each other. If the first part of a verse contains the main thought, the following part (or parts) may add weight to this thought by repeating it in a slightly different form (Ps 27:1; 104:7; Isa 2:7; 5:20-22). In some cases the two parts of a verse may be arranged to contrast with each other by stating two opposite truths (Ps 37:9; Prov 19:4,12).
Alternatively, the second part may add to the first for the purpose of giving an application or leading to a climax (Ps 56:4; 68:18; Jer 31:20). Poetry was sometimes written in the form of an acrostic based on the 22-letter Hebrew alphabet. In the simple acrostic, the first word of each verse began with a different letter, the sequence following the order of the Hebrew alphabet from the first letter to the last (e.g. Psalms 25, 34; Lamentations Chapters 1, 2 and 4). Other acrostics were divided into twenty-two sections of a number of verses each, with all the verses in each section beginning with the same letter. Psalm 119 has twenty-two sections of eight verses each; Lamentations Chapter 3 has twenty-two sections of three verses each. The New Testament, though written in Greek and mainly in prose, contains quotations from Old Testament poems. It also records poems from its own era that the writers composed in the Hebrew style discussed above (Luke 1:46-55,68-79; 2:29-32). In addition there are quotations from what appear to be early Christian hymns (Eph 5:14; 1 Tim 3:16) and occasional quotations from Greek poetry (Acts 17:28; Titus 1:12).
POOR
One reality of life is that society will always contain people who are poor and disadvantaged (Deut 15:11; Matt 26:11). This is not what God intended for the world, but when sin came into the world, human society suffered. This does not necessarily mean that those who are poor are suffering the direct consequences of their own sin. Although there are cases where this may be so (Prov 6:9-11; 10:4; Hag 1:9; Luke 19:24), there are other cases where poverty has no direct connection with personal wrongdoing (Job 1:8-22; Rev 2:9). As with all human suffering, there may be physical, moral, social, religious, political, historical and geographical factors that help produce the problem (see SUFFERING).
Christians may be poor through no fault of their own (Acts 11:27-30; 2 Cor 8:1-5), but they should not behave as if there is no God in whom they can trust (Matt 6:25-33). The inevitability of poverty is no reason for anyone to be indifferent to the poor. Israelite law required people to restrict their own income-earning activities in order to provide opportunities for the poor to support themselves (Exod 23:11; Lev 19:9-10,13). In addition, people were to give money, food and goods to help the poor (Exod 22:25; Lev 25:35-38; Deut 15:7-8; 16:9-12; 26:12; Esther 9:22; Job 29:16). (Concerning regulations designed to prevent money-lenders from exploiting the poor see LENDING.) New Testament teaching also requires those with money and possessions to help those who lack them. Generous giving to those in need is a specific duty of Christians (Matt 25:34-40; Luke 14:13; Rom 15:26; Gal 2:10; James 2:15-17; 1 John 3:17; see GIVING).
God has a special concern for the poor. He guarantees his blessing upon those who help them and his judgment upon those who take unfair advantage of them (Ps 41:1; Prov 17:5; 19:17; 21:13; 29:14; Isa 10:1-2; Amos 2:7-8). God gave special laws to Israel to ensure that in legal disputes judges did not favour the rich against the poor, and were not prejudiced against the rich in favour of the poor (Exod 23:3,6). The poor, as well as the rich, could be guilty of wrongdoing (Prov 30:8-9). However, as corruption and oppression increased, the poor were easily exploited. Often they had no way of gaining justice and cried out helplessly to God to defend them (Ps 69:33; 82:3-4; cf. Ps 109:31; 140:12; Isa 11:4; 32:7). Those who trusted in God amid widespread unfaithfulness and opposition sometimes likened themselves to the helpless poor. They were poor in the sense that they had nothing in themselves to rely upon, but trusted entirely upon God for their salvation. Such people, in any era, are the true citizens of God’s kingdom (Ps 86:1-2; Matt 5:3). Even when they are materially poor, they are often happier than those who are rich, because, being more dependent upon God, they know him better (Luke 4:18; 6:20; 21:1-4; 2 Cor 6:10; cf. Rev 2:9; 3:17). This is a further reason why Christians should not favour the wealthy or despise the poor (James 2:1-6; see WEALTH).
POWER
Some English versions of the Bible use the word ‘power’ to translate different Greek words. In some cases the meaning has to do with great strength or the ability to exercise that strength (1 Cor 1:18; Eph 1:19; Rev 5:13). In other cases it has to do with authority, or the right to exercise authority (Matt 21:23; 28:18; John 1:12; Rom 13:1). The present article is concerned with the first of these meanings. For the second meaning see AUTHORITY.
Evidences of God’s power.
The Old Testament repeatedly speaks of God’s immeasurable power. This power was demonstrated through his creation of the universe (Ps 33:6-9; Isa 40:21-23; Jer 10:12-13), his activity in nature (Ps 29:3-10; 66:5-7), his control of history (Exod 9:16; Ps 33:10; Isa 40:15-17) and his saving acts on behalf of his people (Exod 15:4-12; 32:11; Ps 106:8; 111:6; Isa 40:10-11). These evidences of God’s power are referred to also in the New Testament (Luke 1:49; Rom 1:16,20; 15:19; Heb 1:10-12; Rev 7:12; 15:8). The life and ministry of Jesus Christ provide particularly clear evidence of God’s power (Luke 4:14,36; 5:17; 9:1; see MIRACLES; KINGDOM OF GOD). The supreme demonstration of God’s power is the resurrection of Jesus (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20).
Saving power at work
God’s promise to believers is that the same power as raised Jesus from death is available to them. Just as Jesus conquered sin and death, so can those who trust in him. They have victory over sin now and are assured of victory over death at Jesus’ return (Rom 6:5-11; 8:9-11; Phil 3:9-11; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:42-44,54- 56). The entire salvation God has made available operates by his power. This salvation includes saving sinners from eternal condemnation and giving them victory over sin in their lives as believers (Rom 1:16; 6:14; 1 Cor 1:18,24; 2:5; Eph 1:18-20; 3:20; 1 Peter 1:3-5). This power becomes theirs through the Spirit of God within them (Acts 1:8; Rom 15:13; Eph 3:16; cf. Micah 3:8; Zech 4:6; see HOLY SPIRIT). Although they have this power of God within them, believers are not to seek exhibitions of it that will draw attention to themselves (2 Cor 12:9; 13:4). They should be humble and dependent on God, so that he alone may be the one in whom people trust and to whom they give praise (Acts 3:12-16; 1 Cor 2:4-5; 2 Cor 4:7; Phil 4:13; 1 Thess 1:5; 2 Peter 1:3).
PRAETORIUM
Originally the praetorium was the headquarters of a Roman army commander, whether the supreme commander in Rome or a lesser commander in one of the provinces. Later it became also the official residence and administration centre of the provincial governor (Matt 27:27; Mark 15:16; Acts 23:10,35; 25:6,13-14). On one occasion when Paul was held prisoner, he mentioned that he was guarded by soldiers from the praetorium (Phil 1:13).
PRAISE
One characteristic of the life of God’s people is that they constantly praise him. Praise is an expression of homage, adoration and thanksgiving to God either in prayer or in song, and may be accompanied by various expressions of joy (Exod 15:1-2,20-21; Ps 35:18; 63:5; 71:8; 150:1-6; Isa 12:2-6; Luke 2:13-14; Acts 2:47; 3:8; Col 3:16; Rev 5:9-14; see DANCING; MUSIC; SINGING). Believers offer praise to God because of who he is and what he has done. Their praise is part of their worship of God, and it will reach its fullest expression in the age to come (Ps 7:17; 66:1-4; 104:1; 138:1- 2; Luke 24:53; Rev 19:4-5). All living things, and especially God’s people, have a duty to praise God. They offer this praise both individually and collectively (Ezra 3:10-11; Ps 34:1-3; 35:18; 117:1-2; 135:1- 2; 150:6; Joel 2:26; Acts 16:25; Heb 13:15; 1 Peter 2:9). (For fuller discussion on the subject see WORSHIP.) God’s people should want their lives and actions to bring praise to God. They should not seek praise for themselves (Prov 27:2; Matt 6:2; John 12:43; 2 Cor 9:1; Eph 1:12; Phil 1:11; Col 1:3-4; 1 Thess 2:6). Yet it is true that, if they live uprightly and behave properly, others will naturally want to give them praise (Prov 31:28,31; Acts 16:2; 1 Cor 11:2,17; 1 Peter 2:14).
PRAYER
Prayer is that activity of believers whereby they communicate with God, worshipping him, praising him, thanking him, confessing to him and making requests of him. This article will be concerned mainly with those aspects of prayer connected with requests, whether personal or for others. Concerning other aspects of prayer see CONFESSION; FASTING; PRAISE; WORSHIP.
God’s power and human helplessness
Believers pray because they know that God is the source of all good, the controller of all events and the possessor of supreme power (Neh 1:4-5; 9:6; Matt 6:9). By praying they acknowledge that they have no power to bring about the things they pray for, but God has. Believers are in the position of inferiors to a superior. They have no right to try to force God to do what they want, but by their prayers they are admitting their own helplessness and their complete dependence on God (Mark 9:17-24; Rom 9:20; 11:33-34). They are, in effect, inviting God to work his solution to the matter concerning which they are praying. The answer to a prayer depends not upon the will-power, zeal or emotions of the person praying, but upon the wisdom and power of God. God looks not for an effort to work up feelings, but for a humble and helpless spirit that trusts entirely in him (Ps 51:17; Prov 3:5-6; Luke 18:10-14). The merit is not in the prayer, but in God who answers the prayer. Only when believers recognize their helplessness can they really pray in the right spirit; for then they acknowledge that God can do what they cannot (John 15:5). Their helplessness causes them to trust in God, which means, in other words, that they exercise faith.
Faith and God’s will
Faith, therefore, is a basic requirement of all true prayer (Matt 8:13; Mark 9:23; 11:24; Heb 11:6; James 1:6-8). People do not need large amounts of faith. All they need is enough faith to turn in their helplessness to God (Matt 21:21-22). Faith has no merit in itself, as if God needs people’s faith to help him do things. God has complete power in himself. Faith is simply the means by which believers come to God and ask him to exercise that power (Mark 11:22; Acts 3:16; 4:24-31). Since faith is part of the very nature of prayer, it is impossible for people to use prayer to get their own way. Those who try to use prayer in such a way are not really praying at all. They are arrogantly commanding God instead of humbly depending on him; they are wanting their will to be done instead of God’s (Matt 20:20-23; James 4:3). Long and impressive prayers will not persuade God; neither will an outward show of zeal and earnestness (Matt 6:5-8; Mark 12:38-40). If believers expect to have their prayers answered, they must pray in the name of Jesus, not in their own name. That is, they must pray for what Jesus wants, not what they want. They must desire that certain things will happen for Jesus’ sake, not for their own sake. They must desire that glory be brought to God, not to themselves (John 14:13; 16:23-24).
Answers to prayer
God promises to answer the prayers of his people, but only if they offer those prayers out of pure motives, according to his will, and with a genuine desire to glorify God (Num 14:13-20; Matt 6:10; 18:19; John 14:13; 1 John 5:14-15). Believers should bear in mind that they have no right of their own to come into God’s presence with their requests. They come only because Christ has made entrance into God’s presence possible and because God in his grace accepts them. They come before God humbly and reverently, but they also come confidently (Heb 4:14-16; 10:19-22). Although God’s people can pray with assurance, they have no guarantee that God will immediately give the things they pray for. In fact, he may not give them at all. The reason for this may be that he has something else in mind that will, in the end, be better for themselves, better for others and more glorifying to God. If people pray in the right spirit and with the sincere desire that God’s will be done, they are assured God will answer their prayers. In so doing he may give something different from what was requested.
He gives what people would have asked for if they had the full knowledge that he has (Matt 7:7-11; 26:38-46; John 11:32,37,40-45; 2 Cor 12:8-10; Eph 3:20). If believers live righteous and godly lives, they can have confidence that God hears and answers their prayers. But disobedience, unconfessed sin and an unforgiving spirit are hindrances to prayer (Ps 66:18- 19; Isa 1:15-17; Mark 11:25; Heb 5:7; James 5:16; 1 Peter 3:12; 1 John 3:22). Believers are to pray with the mind as well as with the spirit (1 Cor 14:15; cf. Rom 12:2; Col 1:9). However, they may not always know how exactly to express their prayers or what exactly to pray for. In such cases the Spirit of Christ, who operates through them in all true prayer, presents the prayers to God on their behalf (Rom 8:26-27,34; Eph 6:18; Heb 7:25; 1 John 2:1; Jude 20).
Matters for prayer
Prayer is an exercise for Christians collectively as well as individually. It is one of the functions of the church, particularly of the leaders of the church (Matt 18:19; Acts 1:14; 2:42; 6:4; 12:12; 13:3; 20:36). The Bible gives many examples of the matters believers are to pray about. In their concern for the world, they are to pray that the kingly rule of God will have its rightful place in people’s lives (Matt 6:10; Rom 10:1; 1 Tim 2:1-4). They are to pray that God will send his servants into the world to bring people to know God (Matt 9:37-38), and that God will protect and guide those servants to make their work fruitful (Acts 12:5; Rom 15:30-31; 2 Cor 1:11; Eph 6:19; Phil 1:19). Concerning the church, Christians should pray that they and their fellow believers might know God and his purposes better, be strengthened by God’s power, have unity among themselves, grow in love, develop wisdom, exercise right judgment, endure hardship with joy, and bring glory to God by lives of fruitfulness and uprightness (John 17:20-23; Eph 1:16-23; 3:14-19; 6:18; Phil 1:9-11; Col 1:9-11; 4:12). They should pray also for the physical well-being of each other (James 5:16).
Believers are to pray for those who treat them unkindly (Job 42:10; Matt 5:44), and ask for mercy on those who have sinned and brought disgrace on themselves and on God (Exod 32:11-13; 34:9; 1 Sam 12:23). They are to pray for civil rulers, so that God’s will might be done on earth and people might live in peace (Matt 6:10; 1 Tim 2:1-2). In relation to themselves, believers should pray in times of temptation and when they have spiritual battles (Matt 6:13; 26:36-46). They are to pray for God’s guidance (Luke 6:12-13; Acts 1:24-25), for wisdom (James 1:5-8), for protection (Neh 4:8-9; Ps 57:1-3), and for the necessities of life (Deut 26:15; Matt 6:11). By prayer they can overcome anxiety (Phil 4:6; 1 Peter 5:6-7).
Praying always
People can engage in prayer anywhere and at any time (Gen 24:12-13; Neh 2:4; Luke 5:16; 6:12; 18:10; Acts 10:9; 1 Tim 5:5). In addition to developing the habit of speaking to God freely regardless of time or place, believers should set aside certain times when they can be alone with God and pray. Even Jesus recognized the need for set times of prayer (Dan 6:10; Matt 14:23; Mark 1:35). A person may pray in any position, such as standing or kneeling, with hands stretched out or hands lifted up, with head bowed or head uplifted (1 Sam 1:26; 1 Kings 8:54; 18:42; Ezra 9:5; Luke 18:11,13; John 11:41; Eph 3:14; 1 Tim 2:8). Praying in faith does not mean that persistence in prayer is unnecessary. On the contrary faith involves perseverance. Believers do not have to beg from a God who is unwilling to give; nevertheless they pray constantly, since their prayers are an expression of their unwavering faith. They know that their heavenly Father will supply his children’s needs (Mark 14:38; Luke 11:5-13; 18:1-8; Eph 6:18; Col 4:2; 1 Thess 1:2; 5:17).
PREACHING
The Bible often mentions preaching and teaching together, for the two are closely related. It seems at times that there is little difference between them. The same person was usually both a preacher and a teacher (Matt 4:23; 11:1; Acts 5:42; 15:35; Col 1:28; 1 Tim 2:7; 2 Tim 4:2; see TEACHER). Sometimes preaching is proclamation, such as in announcing the good news of the gospel to those who need it (Luke 4:18; 9:6; Acts 8:4,12,40; 17:18; Gal 1:11,16; 1 Thess 2:9), while teaching is more concerned with the instruction of those who already believe the gospel (John 14:26; Acts 18:11; 20:20; 1 Cor 4:17; Col 2:7; 3:16; 1 Tim 4:11). Teaching is necessary also for those who do not believe (Luke 4:31; 5:3; 21:37; Acts 4:2; 5:21,25; 18:11; 2 Tim 2:24-26), while preaching the great facts of the gospel of Jesus Christ is still necessary to challenge the believer (Rom 1:15; 16:25; 2 Cor 4:5; Col 1:28; 2 Tim 4:2). It is therefore probably better not to make too sharp a distinction between preaching and teaching. To preach the gospel is to preach Christ. God’s message for believers and non-believers centres in him. The gospel is more than just the message of salvation; it is the whole new life in Jesus Christ (1 Cor 1:23-25; 15:1-2,11-12; 2 Cor 1:19-22; 4:5-6; see GOSPEL).
Authority in preaching
God wants the world to learn about him, to know him personally and to be instructed in what he desires for them. He has therefore revealed himself; he has spoken to the human race he created. He has done this dramatically through his Son Jesus Christ, but he has also given a written revelation through the Scriptures (John 1:1,14; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 1:1-2; 2 Peter 1:20-21). Since God has given these Scriptures to his people, those who preach and teach them have a special responsibility to God. God has entrusted his revelation to them, and therefore they must be careful how they use it. They must make it known in a manner that is faithful to its meaning and at the same time beneficial to the hearers (1 Cor 4:1-2; 2 Tim 2:15). Preachers and teachers, though they reveal and announce a message that is not their own, should treat that message as if it were their own. It must become, as it were, part of them before they give it out to others (Jer 20:8-9; Ezek 2:8-10; 3:1-3; Rev 10:8-11). They are doing more than merely passing on someone else’s message; they are instructing their hearers (Acts 20:20). But the only authority in their instruction is that of the Word they preach (Acts 20:27). The spiritual authority of the message comes from God, not from the preacher (1 Cor 1:17; 2:1-5; 4:1-2; 2 Cor 4:7).
Honesty in preaching
If preachers are dependent on God for the benefits their preaching brings to others, they will express their dependence through constant prayer. They will also live righteously, so that their lives are consistent with their message (1 Thess 1:5; 1 Tim 4:16). Yet they must put thought and effort into their ministry (Col 1:28-29) and must work constantly at improving the quality of their performance (1 Tim 4:13-15). Among the dangers that preachers face is the temptation to adjust the message to win approval from the audience. This is the fault for which false prophets were consistently condemned in the Old Testament (Isa 30:8-11; Jer 5:31; 23:16-17,21-22). By contrast true messengers of God say what needs to be said, whether or not it is what people want to hear (Jer 1:17; Micah 3:8; Mark 12:14; 2 Tim 4:2). Whatever Scripture he is expounding, they interpret and apply it honestly. They do not twist it to make it mean something different from what the biblical author intended (2 Cor 4:2). At all times their concern is to gain God’s approval, not to win people’s praise (2 Tim 2:15; cf. John 12:43).
PREDESTINATION
God is the sovereign ruler of the universe, one who is perfect in wisdom and power and who determines all things according to his will (Isa 46:10; Dan 4:35; Acts 4:28; Eph 1:11). Predestination means that he ‘pre-destines’ what will happen – he sees, knows, plans, prepares, appoints and decides what will happen (Ps 33:10-11; Prov 16:33; Isa 14:26-27; 22:11; 37:26-27; Acts 17:26-27; Rom 8:29-30; Eph 1:5-6; 1 Peter 1:20).
Divine will and human response
God’s predestination does not mean that people are the helpless victims of unalterable fate. They have the freedom to make their own decisions, and they are fully responsible for their actions (Luke 22:22; Acts 2:23; 4:27-28; Rom 14:10,12; see also PROVIDENCE). Predestination is concerned with the controlling will of God in all things, whether matters concerning the universe as a whole (Ps 135:6-7; Heb 1:10-12), the nations of the world (Deut 7:6-8; Dan 4:32) or individual people (Jer 1:5; Acts 9:15). The entire life and work of Jesus Christ was according to the predetermined purpose of God (Matt 8:17; 12:17; Luke 24:44-47; Acts 4:25-27; 1 Peter 1:20). The particular aspect of predestination that is concerned with God’s salvation of sinners through Christ is commonly referred to as election (Rom 8:29-30,33; Eph 1:4; 1 Peter 1:2; see ELECTION). People receive eternal life, not because of their efforts to earn it, but because God in his grace gives it to them freely. God makes the offer to all, but most refuse it; and God holds them responsible for their choice (John 3:16-19; 8:24). Those who accept it, however, realize that only God’s grace has drawn them to the Saviour and given them the eternal life that God has prepared for them (John 6:37,40,44; 10:27-29; 17:2; Acts 13:48; 1 Thess 5:9).
A purpose to life
God saves believers because of his eternal purpose, not because of their good works or their efforts at holiness (2 Tim 1:9; cf. Eph 2:8-9). But once they are saved, they must produce good works and make every effort to be holy. Assurance of predestination, far from making them self-satisfied, gives them purpose in life (Eph 1:4; 2:10; 2 Thess 2:13). God’s will is not only to make them his sons (Eph 1:5), but to change them to become like his only Son (Rom 8:29). And one day they will share the Son’s glory (Rom 8:30; 2 Thess 2:13-14). Although believers see the purposes of God at work in their present lives, beyond that they see his purposes for the future. According to his perfect will, he has built his chosen ones into one body, the church (Eph 1:11-13; 2:13-16; Col 3:15). This united body is a visible part of a far greater work that God is doing according to his eternal plan. That plan is designed to bring an end to all the conflict in the universe and restore all things to perfect unity through Jesus Christ (Eph 1:10; 3:9-11).
PRIDE
Pride is possibly the most common sin of all. It is the root sin, the means that Satan used in successfully tempting the original humans to rebel against their maker (Gen 3:1-6; 1 John 2:16). It remains a characteristic feature of fallen human nature and one of the hardest evils to overcome (Prov 16:18; Dan 5:20; Obad 3; Mark 7:21-22; Rom 1:28-30). The essence of pride is self-centredness. The pleasure of the proud is not just to have something, but to have more of it than anyone else; not just to be something, but to be better than anyone else (Prov 14:21; Matt 23:5-7,12; 1 John 2:16).
Pride causes people to rebel against God because he is above them, and despise fellow human beings because, in their view, they are below them (Exod 5:2; Isa 14:12-15; Luke 18:9-11). To feel pleasure at being praised is not pride, provided the pleasure comes from having pleased someone else (Matt 25:21). But if the pleasure is that of delighting in oneself or holding a high opinion of oneself, that is pride (Matt 6:2,5; John 12:43).
In like manner, to feel pleasure in some other person or thing (to feel proud of it) is not pride in the sinful sense, providing it is only unselfish admiration (Hag 1:8; Gal 6:14). But if the pleasure is a feeling of conceit, the pride is sinful (Isa 25:11; Dan 4:30). Pride is a sin that is particularly hateful to God (Prov 8:13; 16:5). Those who practise it bring against themselves God’s opposition, and guarantee for themselves a humiliating punishment (Lev 26:19; Prov 29:23; Isa 13:11; 16:6; Dan 4:37; Luke 1:51; 18:14; James 4:6). (See also BOASTING; HUMILITY; HYPOCRISY.)
PRIEST
In ancient religions, priests were mediators between the people and their gods. They were religious officials whose duty was to pass on the instructions of the gods to the people and offer the people’s sacrifices to the gods (Gen 41:45; 47:22; Exod 2:16; 18:1; 2 Kings 11:18; Acts 14:13). The earliest priest of the one true God that the Bible mentions is Melchizedek. He was God’s representative to whom Abraham offered gifts, and the worshippers’ representative through whom Abraham drew near to God (Gen 14:17-24). Such priests were rare, as God had not yet instituted an organized religious system. Among the ancestors of Israel, the head of the family usually acted as the family priest (Gen 8:20; 22:13; 31:54; 46:1). Before Israel was formally established as God’s people by covenant, Moses served as the nation’s priest (Exod 3:13-15,18; 24:2,6,8,12).
Aaronic (or Levitical) priesthood
At the establishment of Israel’s religious system, Aaron and his sons were the priests, Aaron being set apart as the high priest. In the generations that followed, only male descendants of Aaron could be priests. Those who belonged to the same tribe as Aaron (the tribe of Levi), but who were not of Aaron’s family, were responsible for many of the practical aspects of Israel’s religious affairs, but they were not priests (Exod 6:16-25; 32:25-29; Num 3:2-3; 3:9-10; see LEVITE). Priests mediated between the people and God. They presented the people’s sacrifices to God (Heb 8:3; see SACRIFICE), and passed on God’s instruction to the people (Mal 2:7). They were to be the teachers and moral guides of the nation (Deut 27:9-10; 31:9-13; 33:10). They also carried out daily functions in relation to the altar in the tabernacle courtyard (Lev 6:12,14) and the altar and lamp inside the Holy Place (Exod 27:20-21; 30:7-8). Only priests could enter the Holy Place, and only the high priest could enter the Most Holy Place. Even then he could do so only once a year, on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:2-3; Heb 9:6-7; see DAY OF ATONEMENT).
Representative functions
As religious officials representing the people, priests wore clothing that set them apart from others. An ordinary priest’s clothing was fairly plain, consisting of a full-length long-sleeved white coat and a white cap (Exod 28:40-43). The high priest’s clothing, by contrast, was both distinctive and colourful. Although the high priest wore a white coat similar to that of the ordinary priests (Exod 28:39), it was largely hidden from view because of a blue robe that he wore over it (Exod 28:31-35). Over the blue robe was a multicoloured garment called an ephod, which was the most prominent garment of the high priest’s dress (Exod 28:5- 14; see EPHOD). Tied to the ephod was a flat pouch called the breastpiece, inside which were the Urim and Thummim (Exod 28:15-30; see URIM AND THUMMIM). On his head the high priest wore a turban with a gold plate declaring ‘holiness to the Lord’ (Exod 28:36-39). The high priest’s dress was intended to display dignity and splendour (Exod 28:2). It also showed symbolically that the high priest acted not as an individual but as the representative of the whole nation. He had the names of the tribes of Israel engraved on stones on the breastpiece and on stones on his shoulder pieces, so that when he went into the presence of God he symbolically took the people with him (Exod 28:9-12,21,29).
Before the priests could begin their service, they were appointed to their position in an elaborate dedication ceremony. Since they themselves were not free from sin, they had to offer sacrifices for themselves before they could act on behalf of others (Exod 29:1-37; cf. Heb 7:27). Because they were aware of their own need for forgiveness, the priests should have had a sympathetic understanding of the weaknesses of the people on whose behalf they ministered (Heb. 5:1-3). Priests were to maintain disciplined behaviour, moral uprightness and ceremonial cleanliness (Lev 10:8-11; 21:1-8,13-14; 22:1-9). Any priests who had physical defects could not carry out representative functions for the people, though they could share in less public priestly activity (Lev 21:16-24). The people provided the income of those who did religious work on their behalf. They gave a tithe (i.e. a tenth) of their own income to the Levites, and the Levites in turn gave a tenth to the priests (Num 18:25-28; see TITHES). The priests received further income from portions of sacrifices, animal firstlings and harvest firstfruits that were allotted to them. This income helped compensate for the priests’ lack of tribal or family land (Num 5:9-10; 18:8-20; Deut 18:1-5; 26:1-4).
Other responsibiliti
One duty of the priests was to ensure that people maintained a high level of cleanliness, whether in matters of ceremonial holiness, physical health or personal hygiene (Lev 13:3,10,20,30; 14:2-3,36,48; 15:13-15,28-30; Matt 8:4; see UNCLEANNESS). Priests also supervised the keeping of vows (Lev 27:1-25; Num 6:6-12; see VOWS) and assisted civil officials in giving judgments in certain moral issues (Num 5:11-31; Deut 17:8-13; 19:15-21; 21:1-9). They had ceremonial and practical functions in national affairs such as mobilization for war, land allocation and public celebrations (Num 10:1-10; Josh 3:14-17; 14:1; 19:51; 1 Chron 15:24; 2 Chron 13:12). By the time of David there were too many priests for the amount of work to be done. David therefore divided the priests (and the Levites) into twenty-four sections, each of whom served for one week every six months (1 Chron 24:1-6; Luke 1:8). The remaining four weeks of the year were taken up with the annual festivals, which all males were to attend and which therefore required all priests to be on duty (Exod 23:14-17).
Changing role of the priests
Throughout Israel’s history there were both good and bad priests. Many were zealous for righteousness and had a good influence on national leaders and the people as a whole (Num 25:1-13; 2 Sam 15:27; 1 Kings 1:8; 2 Kings 12:2; 2 Chron 11:13-17; Ezra 5:1-2; Neh 8:1-9; see EZRA; JEHOIADA; JOSHUA THE SON OF JEHOZADAK; PHINEHAS; ZADOK). Some of the nation’s better kings gave priests important leadership responsibilities in an effort to reform the nation and administer it according to God’s law (2 Chron 17:7-9; 19:8-11; 29:3-4,11; 31:2-5; 34:8-9,20-21; 35:1-6; see CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF). Other priests, however, were rebellious, corrupt, immoral and idolatrous. They were among the chief causes of the nation’s ultimate destruction (Lev 10:1- 2; 1 Sam 2:12-17; 3:10-14; 2 Kings 16:11-16; Isa 28:7; Jer 2:8; 6:13-15; Ezek 22:26; Hosea 6:9; Micah 3:11; Zeph 3:3-4; Mal 2:7-8). After the captivity in Babylon, the Jews moved back to their homeland and rebuilt the nation. By this time a new emphasis had developed on teaching the law of Moses, and a new group of teachers had become prominent in Israel. These were known as scribes, or teachers of the law (see SCRIBES). As the years passed, the priests became more concerned with exercising political power, though they still carried out ceremonial functions (Luke 1:8; 5:14). By New Testament times two major religious parties dominated Jewish affairs. The scribes were the main influence in the more traditionally religious party, the Pharisees, but the chief priests controlled the politically dominant party, the Sadducees (Acts 5:17; see SADDUCEES). All these people, whether priests or scribes, Sadducees or Pharisees, readily cooperated to get rid of Jesus (Matt 21:15,45-46; 22:15,23; 26:57; 27:41; Mark 11:18; John 11:57).
High priesthood of Jesus
The writer of the book of Hebrews pictures the life, death and present ministry of Jesus as that of a great high priest. Jesus’ high priesthood, however, belongs not to the order of Aaron (for Jesus was not a descendant of Aaron) but to the order of Melchizedek. This was a higher priesthood than Aaron’s, for it was not limited to one era, one nation, one family or one class of people. Christ’s priesthood is therefore timeless and is available to all (Heb 7:1-3,11-17,23-25). Although Christ did not belong to the Aaronic priesthood, his priestly work followed the pattern of the Aaronic priesthood. Yet it was far superior, for it achieved perfectly what the Aaronic priesthood merely pictured. Like the Aaronic priests, Christ was appointed to his position by God. He also had a sympathetic understanding of the problems of those whom he represented before God. But, unlike the Aaronic priests, he was without sin and so had no need to offer sacrifices for his own sins before acting on behalf of others (Heb 2:17-18; 4:15-16; 5:1-6; 7:26-28).
Aaronic priests offered sacrifices repeatedly, but the sacrifices could never make people perfect, because they could never take away sins. Christ offered himself as a sacrifice. By that one act he completed his sacrificial work and brought perfect cleansing to all believers (Heb 10:1-4,11-14). The Aaronic high priest could enter the Most Holy Place (God’s symbolic dwelling place) only once a year, and then only by taking with him the blood of a sacrificial animal. Christ, through his own blood, entered the actual presence of God and secured an eternal salvation (Heb 8:1-2; 9:6-14,24-26). Because Christ is in God’s presence as their heavenly representative, Christians can now enter God’s presence. They need no earthly priest to mediate on their behalf. Through Christ they can come to God directly and confidently, knowing that they can depend on Christ’s help in pleading for their needs before God (Heb 4:14-16; 7:25; 9:24; 10:19-22; Rom 8:34; 1 John 2:1; see ADVOCATE). Christians have added confidence in Christ’s concern for them when they see the prayer that he prayed for his disciples shortly before his crucifixion (John 17:9-26). Furthermore, they know that Christ’s personal entrance into the presence of God is the guarantee that one day they too will personally enter the presence of God, and find there an eternal dwelling place (Heb 6:19-20).
All God’s people are priests
Although Israel’s religious system had an appointed order of priests, there was a sense (not specifically connected with the religious system) in which all the people were priests. Israel, as the chosen people of God, was a kingdom of priests, a holy nation. The people of Israel were to serve God, both by bringing him worship and by being his representatives in making him known to other nations (Exod. 19:5-6; Isa 61:6). The words recorded in Exodus 19:5-6 applied to the Old Testament people of God, but in the New Testament the same words are applied to the new people of God, the Christian church. Christ’s people are now God’s chosen race, a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (1 Peter 2:9-10; cf. Rev 1:6; 5:9-10). They serve God by bringing him the sacrifice of worship and praise (1 Peter 2:5; cf. Heb 13:15) and by making him known to the nations of the world (1 Peter 2:9; cf. Rom 15:16).
PRISCILLA
When the Bible mentions the husband and wife team of Aquila and Priscilla (or Prisca), it usually mentions Priscilla first (Acts 18:26; Rom 16:3; 1 Tim 4:19). This is unusual, but the Bible gives no reason for such usage. Perhaps Priscilla was more active or more prominent than Aquila in the Christian work in which they were constantly and wholeheartedly engaged. (For details see AQUILA.)
PRISON
God has given governments the right to send law-breakers to prison (Rom 13:4), but he forbids brutal or excessive punishments. The punishment must be in proportion to the crime (Exod 21:23-25). In Bible times all sorts of places were used as prisons. In some cases there were official state prisons (Gen 39:20; 2 Kings 17:4; Mark 6:17; Acts 12:4; 16:24), though in other cases a prisoner may have been locked in the soldiers’ barracks at the palace (Jer 32:2), dropped into an old disused well (Jer 38:6), or kept under guard in a private house (Acts 28:16,30). Often the prison conditions were bad (Jer 37:18-20), the food poor (2 Chron 18:26) and the treatment cruel (Judg 16:21,25; Jer 52:11; Ezek 19:9). Such conditions were not as common in Israel as in neighbouring countries, because the law of Moses encouraged respect for justice and human life. The guilty were to be punished, but they were not to be degraded (Deut 25:3; cf. Num 15:34). (For further details see PUNISHMENT.)
PROMISE
Israelites of the Old Testament era made their promises usually in the forms of covenants, oaths and vows. They therefore understood the promises of God in relation to such forms (Exod 6:8; Deut 9:5; Eph 2:12; Heb 6:13; see COVENANT; OATHS; VOWS). In the New Testament, although the idea of the covenant is present, there is little concerning oaths and vows. Usually the emphasis is on the promise, and most of the promises are made by God (2 Cor 1:20; Titus 1:2). Some of these promises are in the nature of fulfilled prophecies, where God’s promises of Old Testament times find their fulfilment in the events of Christ and the gospel (Luke 1:32-33,72-73; Acts 13:23,32; Rom 1:2; 15:8; Gal 3:14; Heb 9:15; cf. Gen 12:1-3; 2 Sam 7:16; Jer 31:31-34). Others concern the gift of the Holy Spirit to the church (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:4; 2:33,39), and the blessings of the believer in the age to come (Heb 10:36; James 1:12; 2:5; 2 Peter 3:4,13; 1 John 2:25). The New Testament therefore refers to the entire gospel and its blessings as being based on promise.
That is, salvation is God’s gift, dependent on God’s faithfulness and in no way a reward for human effort or merit (Gal 3:18; 4:23-28; 2 Tim 1:1; Heb 4:1; 10:36). God’s promises are contrasted with the law given to Israel; for whereas the law demanded obedience, the promises require only faith to accept them (Rom 4:13-16; Gal 3:17-18; 3:21-22; Eph 3:6; Heb 8:6; 11:13). God is always faithful to his promises. He has given added assurance of this by giving the Holy Spirit to the believer as a guarantee that he will do what he has promised (Eph 1:13-14; Heb 6:13; 10:23; 2 Peter 3:9). God’s people likewise should be faithful to their promises, even when it involves them in personal inconvenience (Deut 23:23; Ps 15:4; 2 Cor 1:17-20).
PROPHECY, PROPHET
In present-day language the words ‘prophecy’ and ‘prophet’ are usually used in relation to foretelling events; a prophet is one who predicts (for example, a weather prophet). This was not the basic idea associated with the work of a prophet in Old Testament times. In those times prophecy meant making known the will of God; a prophet was God’s spokesman. This definition of a prophet was well illustrated in the case of Aaron, who was Moses’ prophet, or spokesman (Exod 4:10-16; 7:1-2). Moses was the leader of Israel, but Aaron was the person who announced Moses’ instructions to the people. In the same way the prophet announced God’s will to the people of his time (1 Kings 22:8; 2 Kings 22:14-20; Jer 1:7,9; Ezek 3:4,27; Amos 3:7). A true prophet could be appointed only by God (Jer 1:5; Ezek 2:3-7; Amos 7:15). He was therefore known as a man of God (1 Sam 2:27; 9:6; 1 Kings 13:1-2), a messenger of God (Hag 1:13), or a servant of God (2 Kings 17:23; 21:10; Jer 7:25). Sometimes he was called a seer (meaning ‘one who sees’) because he may have seen God’s message in a vision (1 Sam 9:9,18-19; Zech 1:7-8).
Prophetical books
The arrangement of books within the Hebrew Bible gives a further indication of the Israelites’ understanding of prophecy. They divided their Bible (our Old Testament) into three sections, which they called the Law, the Prophets and the Writings. The Law consisted of the five books of Moses. The Prophets consisted of the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the twelve so-called Minor Prophets). The Writings consisted of the miscellaneous other books. It becomes clear, as we look at the composition of the Former Prophets group, that the books that we call historical the Israelites called prophetical. This is because these books were written from the prophetic point of view, showing how God was working out his purposes in the lives of his people. Most of Israel’s historians were in fact prophets (1 Chron 29:29; 2 Chron 9:29; 12:15). In summary we might say that in the Former Prophets God revealed himself in the history of Israel, and in the Latter Prophets he revealed himself through the words of his spokesmen. Because they understood prophecy in this way, the Israelites excluded Chronicles from the Former Prophets and Daniel from the Latter Prophets. Chronicles was written from the priestly point of view rather than the prophetic. Daniel was written in the apocalyptic style rather than the prophetic. (See APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE.)
Professional and writing prophets
The prophets whose writings have become part of the Old Testament are commonly referred to as the writing prophets. Their writings date from the eighth century BC, but prophets had been active in Israel long before the eighth century. Even before the establishment of Israel’s monarchy, prophets had been preachers and spiritual guides in Israel (Judg 4:4; 1 Sam 3:20; 2 Sam 7:2). In the days of Samuel there were many young prophets in Israel. These young men had plenty of enthusiasm, but their emotional and sometimes uncontrolled behaviour helped to give prophets a poor reputation (1 Sam 10:5,9-12; 19:20-24; 2 Kings 9:11; cf. Amos 7:14).
In an effort to redirect this religious enthusiasm for the spiritual benefit of the nation, Samuel established a school of prophets at Ramah. This was followed by the establishment of additional schools in other centres (1 Sam 19:18-20; 2 Kings 2:3,5; 4:38). The setting up of these schools did not bring an immediate solution to the problem of emotionalism. Nevertheless, when Israel’s religion was under threat from the Baal worship introduced by Jezebel, the prophets Elijah and Elisha found many faithful followers of God in these schools. These young men (the ‘sons of the prophets’) helped maintain the worship of the true God in a nation that had become unfaithful (2 Kings 2:1-7,15; 4:38; 6:1). A person did not have to be a member of one of these schools to be a prophet. By the time of the writing prophets two hundred years later, many from these schools were more concerned with being religious professionals than with spiritually feeding God’s people. Very few of the writing prophets appear to have been professionals. Their emphasis was that the true prophet had been called by God, not that he had received specialist training (Jer 1:4-8; Amos 7:14-15).
True and false prophets
Religion was an important part of Israelite life, and people often consulted prophets about their affairs. Consequently, many of the prophets operated near Israel’s public places of worship (1 Sam 9:11- 12; 10:5; 1 Kings 13:1-2; 18:30; Jer 35:4; Amos 7:12-13). Some of them were advisers to kings and officials, so that leaders could ask God’s directions when they faced important decisions (2 Sam 7:1-3; 24:11-12; 1 Kings 22:6-8; 2 Kings 19:1-7; Jer 38:14-17). Prophets received their income from those to whom they ministered, and this tempted them to say the sorts of things they knew their hearers wanted to hear. This assured them of good payment, but it brought condemnation from genuine believers. Because of their dishonesty and greed they were known as false prophets (1 Kings 22:5-8,13-18; Jer 6:13-14; 23:16-17; Micah 2:11; 3:5-7,11). True prophets denounced the false prophets as being appointed by themselves, not by God. They were not God’s messengers, but spoke according to their own selfish desires (Jer 14:14; 23:21-22; Ezek 13:1-3,17).
Instead of rebuking the people for their sin and so running the risk of becoming unpopular, the false prophets assured the people that God was pleased with them. The truth was that the people were heading for judgment, and the corruption of the prophets was only adding to that judgment (Jer 23:11-17; Ezek 13:8-16,22). The test of a prophet, whether he was true or false, was not whether his predictions came true, for even the predictions of false prophets could come true. The test was rather whether he led people in the ways of God (Deut 13:1-5; Jer 23:21-22,29-32). Nevertheless, if a prophet made a bold assertion that his prediction would come true and it did not, he was clearly a false prophet (Deut 18:22). If prophets were truly God’s messengers, their chief concern was not with foretelling events, but with leading people to repentance and obedience (Micah 3:8; 7:18; Zeph 2:1-3). They often opposed false religious practices, not because the practices themselves were wrong, but because the people carried them out in the wrong attitude. Religious exercises were no substitute for morality. They were of value only when the people were doing God’s will in their daily lives. God would accept his people’s worship only if they conducted themselves with righteousness before him and justice to others (Isa 1:12-17; Amos 5:21- 24; Micah 6:6-8).
Current events and future hopes
Since the prophet’s chief purpose was to bring God’s message to the people of his time, prediction was not an essential part of the message. However, it often played a part, because the God who is concerned about the present also controls the future. As the prophet urged the people to turn from their sins and obey God, he may therefore have spoken of events that would follow the people’s obedience or disobedience. His predictions were not merely to satisfy curiosity about the future, but had an important moral purpose. They showed people what God required of them now (Isa 1:18-20; Hosea 11:1-11; 14:1- 7). Predictions of this sort were usually conditional, even though the prophet may not have mentioned the conditions in his prophecy. For example, a prediction of blessing may not have been fulfilled, because the people were disobedient.
A prediction of punishment may not have been fulfilled, because the people repented (Jer 18:7-10; 26:17-19; Jonah 3:4,10). The prophets, like all the godly in Israel, looked forward to the day when God would punish all enemies, cleanse the earth of sin and establish his righteous rule in the world (Isa 24:17-23; 32:1-4). The one who would rule in this golden age they called the Messiah (cf. Ps 2:1-7; see MESSIAH). But while the prophets pictured the Messiah as a king, a conqueror and a saviour, they also spoke of a prophetic figure whom they pictured as a servant, a sufferer and a victim. What they did not see was that both pictures applied to the same person. The Messiah was a king and a servant, a conqueror and a sufferer, a saviour and a victim (Deut. 18:15; Isa 9:6-7; 11:1-5; 52:13-14; 53:4-7; Zech 6:12-13; 12:10). Another point that the prophets did not see was that this person would fulfil God’s purposes not all at once, but through two separate entrances into the world. The New Testament makes it clear that this promised person was Jesus Christ (Matt 11:2-6; 22:41-45; Luke 1:32-33; 24:19,25-26; 1 Peter 1:10-12; Rev 5:5). The Messiah’s first coming began with Jesus’ birth and ended with his death, resurrection and ascension. At his second coming he will judge the world and lead his people into the era of the new heavens and the new earth (Heb 1:5-9; 9:27-28; Rev 19:11-16; 21:1-4).
Problems concerning time
This apparent disregard for time is a common feature of Old Testament prophecy. A prediction may contain some parts fulfilled within the prophet’s lifetime, other parts fulfilled within a generation or two, and other parts still unfulfilled (e.g. Joel 2:24-32; Hag 2:20-23). It seems that the reason for this is that the prophet sees things from God’s point of view; and God does not live in the sort of time system that operates in the world. The prophet sees and knows in a way that is different from that of ordinary people. It is as if he steps out of the present world into the world of eternity, where time as we know it does not exist (2 Peter 3:8; Rev 1:8; see ETERNITY; TIME). The prophet may therefore speak of events in language of future, present or even past tense (Isa 9:6- 7; 53:1-9; Jer 51:52-57). Events may be separated by thousands of years as the ordinary person sees them, but they may not be separated at all in the message spoken by the prophet. He may group events together almost as if they happened about the same time (Isa 53:1-12; 61:1-9; Ezek 34:20-24; cf. 1 Peter 1:10-12).
The language of prophecy
Early prophets such as Deborah, Samuel, Nathan, Ahijah, Elijah and Elisha have left little or no record of their prophecies. It is clear, however, that they sometimes passed on their messages by means of stories and symbolic actions (2 Sam 12:1-7; 1 Kings 11:29-31). Over the following centuries, prophets increasingly wrote down their messages as well as, or sometimes instead of, speaking them (Isa 30:8; Jer 29:1,25; 36:1-4). Some also acted them (Isa 20:1-6; Jer 19:1-3; Ezek 5:1-12). Most of the prophecies that have been written down are in the form of poetry. One reason for this is that poetry is often more effective than prose in expressing a person’s deepest thoughts and feelings. Poetry is also easier to memorize, and this helped people to remember and pass on the message. (For further details see POETRY.)
New Testament prophets
John the Baptist, the forerunner of Jesus, continued the line of Old Testament prophets into the New Testament era (Matt 11:10,13; cf. Luke 2:36). He proclaimed God’s will to the people and called them to repentance. At the same time he announced the blessings that would follow if they obeyed his message, and the judgments that would follow if they rejected it (Matt 3:7-12; Luke 3:3-7,16-18). He was the last prophet before Jesus Christ, in whose life, death, resurrection and final triumph all the Old Testament prophecies of salvation and judgment found their complete fulfilment (Matt 26:56; Luke 24:25-27). In a sense Jesus too was a prophet.
He was the one through whom God spoke (Heb 1:1-2), the great prophet that the people of Israel had always looked for as part of their messianic hope (Deut 18:15; John 6:14; 7:40; Acts 3:19-23; see MESSIAH). As a prophet he brought a message that people recognized as an authoritative word from God (Matt 7:28-29; 11:21; Luke 7:16; 24:19). Jesus, in turn, established the new community of God’s people, the Christian church, and in this community he appointed prophets to have a part. They were one of his gifts to the church (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11). Jesus had promised that his Spirit would enable the leaders of the early church to recall, interpret and apply his teachings, and so build up the church (John 14:26; 15:26; 16:13; cf. Acts 2:24; 4:13; 6:4). Apostles and prophets were Christ’s special provision for the early church, to ensure that it was built on a proper foundation and in accordance with God’s plan (Eph 2:20; 3:4-6; see APOSTLE). As the authoritative Christian teaching became increasingly available in written form, the need for apostles and prophets diminished. It seems that they were no longer needed after the first century. Like Old Testament prophets,
New Testament prophets were concerned with more than simply foretelling future events. Certainly they revealed God’s will concerning people and events, and often they gave special instruction in particular situations (Acts 11:27-30; 13:1-2; 21:9-11; Rev 1:3; 10:7; see REVELATION). But above all the prophets built up God’s people through bringing them the message of God in the power of the Spirit (Acts 15:32; 1 Cor 14:3-5,31).
Even people who were not Christians could see the relevance of prophetic messages and, through repentance and faith, find salvation (1 Cor 14:24- 25). Prophets were closely linked with teachers and, like teachers, encouraged and strengthened their hearers through expounding the Scriptures (Acts 13:1; 14:22; 15:32; see TEACHER). It seems that they also received messages direct from God (1 Cor 14:6,26; Rev 1:1-3) and sometimes spoke with little or no preparation (1 Cor 14:29-31). This did not mean that the prophets had no control over the urges they might have felt (1 Cor 14:32). Nor were people to accept their words without question simply because they were known as prophets. The hearers had to test everything according to the apostolic teaching, to see whether or not the prophets were building people up in the truth of God (1 Cor 14:29; 1 Thess 5:20-21; 1 John 4:1; cf. 1 Cor 14:37- 38; Gal 1:8; 2 John 10). Some people who were not regular prophets in the church may have prophesied in exceptional circumstances (Acts 19:6; cf. 2:17). This increased the possibility that false prophets might appear. God therefore gave to certain people the special gift of being able to discern more readily the difference between the true and the false (Matt 7:15; 24:24; 1 Cor 12:10; Rev 2:20).
PROPITIATION
Very rarely does the word ‘propitiation’ appear in modern English. This is largely the reason why present-day versions of the English Bible prefer to use alternative expressions. In simple terms, to propitiate means to turn away a person’s anger by giving that person an offering.
The wrath of God
God is holy, and therefore he is always opposed to evil. The Bible describes this opposition to evil as the wrath or anger of God (Deut 11:16-17; John 3:36; Eph 5:6). It is not an anger such as the bad temper that sinful people often display, but an anger that contains no trace of sin. It is the attitude of one who loves goodness and hates evil to such an extent that he cannot overlook wrongdoing. He cannot treat sin as if it does not matter (2 Kings 23:26; Jer 21:12; Hab 1:13; Rom 1:18; 2:5; Heb 1:9; Rev 14:8-11; 19:1- 2). Mean and women, through sin, have cut themselves off from God and placed themselves under the wrath of God. They are unable to have fellowship with God, unable to please God and unable to bring themselves back to God (Isa 59:2; Rom 8:7-8; Eph 2:3; Col 1:21). God always has an attitude of wrath against sin, and there is nothing sinners can to do to propitiate God (i.e. to pacify, appease, calm the anger of or win the favour of God). Pagans used to try to escape the wrath of their gods by offering sacrifices; that is, they tried to propitiate their gods. But sinners cannot act towards God like this. None of their efforts can quiet God’s wrath against sin or win his favour. (For similar ideas of making offerings to turn away wrath see Exod 32:30-32; Prov 6:34-35; 16:14; Isa 16:1-7; 47:11.)
The love and mercy of God
God’s opposition to sin is connected with his concern for people’s good. God is a God of love, and he reacts in holy and just anger against all that is wrong in his rebellious creatures. Sinful people justly deserve the punishment that God’s holy wrath requires, but God is patient with them and has no pleasure in punishing them (Ps 78:38; Rom 2:2-4; 2 Peter 3:9). In fact, he provides a way whereby they need not suffer the punishment themselves. This was demonstrated in the sacrificial system that God gave to Israel. Sinners were in a hopeless position where there was nothing they could do to escape God’s wrath. Yet God in his love provided a way of dealing with sin, so that the punishment on sin could be carried out, while at the same time sinners could be forgiven. God allowed repentant sinners to kill an animal, so that the animal suffered the penalty that they, because of their sin, should have suffered. Pardon was not something that sinners had to squeeze from an unwilling God, but was the merciful gift of a God who wanted to forgive. God’s anger was turned away (i.e. God was propitiated) not by the efforts of people to please him but solely by his own gracious gift. God provided the propitiation (Lev 17:11; see BLOOD; SACRIFICE). The sacrifice was not the sinner’s gift (in the sense of a bribe) to win God’s favour, but God’s provision to bear the divine judgment on sin. God’s act of forgiveness, being based on love, involved his dealing with sin. God’s wrath and God’s love, far from being in conflict with each other, operated in harmony (Isa 53:4-5,10-11; 54:8; Micah 7:18; John 3:16-21,36; Rom 6:23).
The sacrifice of Christ
Sacrifices belonging to the Old Testament system had real meaning for genuinely repentant sinners. The sacrifices enables people to see that God was acting justly in dealing with their sins, and gave them a way of expressing their faith in God’s forgiving love (Heb 9:22). But the blood of animals could not take away sins (Heb 10:4). Only the blood of Jesus Christ – his death on the cross – can do that. In view of Christ’s death, God was able to ‘pass over’, temporarily, the sins of Old Testament believers. God forgave them on credit, so to speak, for their sin was not actually removed till Christ died (Rom 3:25-26). It becomes clear, now that the climax of God’s plan of salvation has been reached through Christ, that the only thing that propitiates God is the death of Christ. Again, God provides the way. He himself becomes the sacrifice that secures the propitiation. A loving God willingly pays the penalty on behalf of those under his judgment (2 Cor 5:19; 1 John 4:10). God’s holy wrath against sin has been satisfied by Christ’s death, and therefore he can show mercy on the believing sinner. He can forgive the sinner, yet still be just in doing so (Rom 3:25-26; Heb 2:17; 1 John 2:2).
PROSELYTE
Throughout the cities of the Roman Empire there were communities of Jews who kept the traditions of their ancestors and attended synagogues regularly. These were known as Jews of the Dispersion, or the scattered Jews (see DISPERSION). Many Gentiles in these cities, being attracted to the Jewish religion by the morally upright lives of the Jews, attended the synagogue services and kept some of the Jewish sabbath and food laws. These people became known as God-fearers, or worshippers of God (Acts 10:1-2; 16:14). Some went even further and were circumcised and baptized as Jews. They were known as proselytes, or converts to Judaism (Acts 2:10; 6:5). Many of these Gentile proselytes and God-fearers, having already come to know and worship the God of Israel, readily became Christians when they first heard the gospel of Jesus Christ (Acts 13:43; 14:1; 17:4).
PROSTITUTION
In the ancient world, as in the modern, prostitution was widespread (Gen 38:15; Josh 2:1; Judg 11:1; 16:1; 1 Kings 3:16; Prov 2:16; 6:26; Luke 15:30). In Israelite law the penalty for prostitution was death, usually by stoning (Lev 19:29; 21:7,9; Deut 22:21; John 8:5). Prostitutes bring lasting damage to themselves and their lovers. The Bible gives strong warnings against them (Prov 2:16-19; 5:1-14; 6:23-27; 7:1-27). Christians in particular should have no union with prostitutes, since they already are spiritually united with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:15-20). Although the Bible condemns prostitution, it does not reject prostitutes as being without hope of salvation. In the time of Jesus, prostitutes and other socially despised people were usually more willing to listen to the message of Jesus than were religiously respectable people. Some believed in him and found forgiveness (Matt 9:11-13; 21:31-32; Luke 7:37-50; 15:1).
(See also ADULTERY.) In Old Testament times Israel was unfaithful to God in leaving him and going after false gods. This unfaithfulness was likened to the behaviour of an unfaithful wife who leaves her husband to become a prostitute (Isa 1:21; Jer 13:27; Ezek 16:1-63; Hosea 1:2; 2:13; Micah 1:7). Israel’s idolatry, besides being spiritual prostitution, involved physical prostitution. In many of the idolatrous religions, prostitutes were available for sexual rites that people believed gave increase in family, crops, flocks and herds (1 Kings 14:23-24; Jer 3:6-10; 13:22-27; Hosea 4:7-14; Amos 2:7-8; see BAAL). God’s prophets sometimes likened political and commercial agreements between Israel and pagan nations to acts of prostitution. Such agreements were often unions of shame designed solely for personal advantage. They ignored God’s standards and defied his authority (Isa 23:17; Nahum 3:4). This anti-God spirit, symbolized by the prostitute, found its expression in New Testament times in the Roman Empire. It will find its fullest expression in the days of the world’s final great rebellion prior to the return of Jesus Christ (Rev 17:1-18).
PROVIDENCE
The word ‘providence’, though not found in the Bible, is commonly used to describe God’s control and government of all things. He maintains the universe and cares for his creatures according to his perfect love, wisdom and power. He directs all affairs, small and great, according to his purposes and brings them to their appointed goal (Ps 147:8-9; Eccles 3:11; Isa 10:5-7; Matt 10:29; Eph 1:11; Phil 2:13; 1 Tim 6:15). God’s providence is evident everywhere – in the physical creation (Ps 29:3-6; 78:13-16; 104:27-28; Matt 6:26,28; Acts 14:17), in the events of world history (Prov 21:1; Amos 9:7; Luke 1:52; Acts 17:26; Rom 9:17) and in the lives of individuals (Gen 30:1-2; Job 1:21; Prov 16:33; Matt 6:25,30; 10:30; Luke 1:53). God’s people are particularly aware of these truths, because they see God at work in everything (Eph 4:6).
Christians see not only God’s love in his preservation of nature, but also his purpose in directing it towards its final glory (Matt 5:44-45; Rom 8:19-23; Col 1:17). They see that his direction of history has produced Jesus the Saviour and will lead to victory over all evil at the final triumph of Christ’s kingdom (Gal 4:4; Col 1:20; 2 Thess 2:3-8). They see God at work in their own lives, lovingly controlling all their affairs in order to lead them to greater spiritual maturity (Rom 8:28; Phil 4:12-13; James 1:2-4; see also PREDESTINATION; SUFFERING). Providence is not fate. There is no suggestion that because of God’s controlling power everything happens mechanically. Neither the world of nature nor the world of humankind is the helpless subject of unalterable impersonal laws that determine the course of events. All things and all people are in the hands of the living God who is responsive to their needs (Gen 50:20; Jer 17:7-10; Jonah 4:11; Matt 8:26; 15:32; James 5:17-18; see MIRACLES; PRAYER). Also, people cannot excuse their mistakes by trying to put the blame on God’s providence. People are moral beings and God holds them responsible for all their actions (Deut 30:15-18; Rom 2:15; cf. Luke 22:22; Acts 4:27-28).
PUNISHMENT
As the supreme Lord and the perfect judge, God is the source of all justice. He loves what is good and is the giver of all blessings (Zeph 3:5; Matt 19:17; James 1:17). He also hates what is evil and requires just punishment on the sins that people commit (Ps 94:1-2; Rom 12:19; Heb 10:30).
Order in society
God desires that human society function justly and orderly. Therefore, he has given to human beings the responsibility to administer justice in society and to carry out fitting punishments on wrongdoers (Rom 13:1-4; 1 Peter 2:13-14; see GOVERNMENT). Such punishments must always be just. They must not be relaxed to favour people of power and influence such as the rich; nor must they be imposed rashly to take advantage of defenceless people such as the poor (Exod 23:3,6; cf. Rom 2:11; James 2:6). Always the punishment must be in proportion to the crime (Exod 21:22-25; Deut 25:1-13; Gal 6:7). Where the wrongdoing involves loss or damage, the wrongdoer should compensate the person who suffers the loss or damage (Exod 22:1-6; Luke 19:8). Punishment of wrongdoers should be carried out primarily because they deserve it, not because the ruling authorities want to use them to teach others a lesson (Deut 13:10; 19:19; 25:2; Luke 23:41; Heb 2:2). If, however, the punishment serves to warn others or reform the wrongdoer, so much the better (Deut 13:11; 19:20).
Eternal punishment
Being a holy and righteous judge, God must punish sin (John 5:26-29; Rom 2:1-6). But God’s holiness and righteousness are not separate from his love. He has therefore provided a way of salvation so that when people repent of their sins and trust in his mercy, they can receive forgiveness. Christ bears the punishment of their sins for them (Heb 9:28; 1 Peter 2:24; see JUDGMENT; PROPITIATION). Those who repent are forgiven and receive eternal life. Those who refuse to repent remain unforgiven and suffer eternal punishment (Matt 25:46; 2 Thess 1:9). The word ‘eternal’ indicates the nature, rather than the length of time, of the life or punishment. They belong to the eternal and spiritual world in contrast to the temporal and material world. Nevertheless, there is a terrible endlessness about the punishment, as Jesus clearly pointed out (Mark 9:43-48; see HELL). There is no indication in the Bible that God’s judgment of condemnation on the wicked will be reversed. The judgment is final, and therefore the punishment is eternal (Matt 8:12; 13:41-42; John 3:36; Rom 2:5-11). The punishment is not for the purpose of correction. It is for the purpose of carrying out the penalty that the person, because of his sin, deserves (1 Peter 1:17; Rev 16:6).
PURIFICATION
See UNCLEANNESS.