Diccionario Bíblico - Letra E - King James Version Bible

EARTHQUAKE

Earthquakes were well known events in the world of the Bible story (Exod 19:18; 1 Sam 14:15; 1 Kings 19:11; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5; Matt 27:54; 28:2; Acts 16:26). The Bible writers often refer to earthquakes as evidence of God’s mighty power (Judg 5:4; Ps 18:7; Isa 29:6; Joel 2:10; 3:16; Nahum 1:5; Hab 3:6; Matt 24:7; Rev 6:12; 8:5; 11:13; 16:18). God may have used earthquakes, along with other forces of nature, to bring about his judgments, even in cases where the Bible does not specifically mention an earthquake. The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, the stopping of the Jordan River at the time of Israel’s entrance into Canaan, and the collapse of the walls of Jericho may all have involved earthquake activity. These events occurred in the place and at the time God had earlier announced, showing that they had resulted from his direct intervention (Gen 19:12-14,24-28; Josh 3:7-8,13-17; 6:5,20).

EBAL

The mountains Ebal and Gerizim were in central Canaan and stood opposite each other on either side of the town of Shechem. The town and the mountains were closely linked in some important events in Israel’s history (Josh 8:32-35; 24:1; for details see SHECHEM).

EBER

Eber was an early Semite (i.e. a descendant of Shem) whose two sons, Joktan and Peleg, began two notable lines of family descent (Gen 10:21,25). The line of descent through Joktan produced many of the Arab tribes (Gen 10:26-30), and the line through Peleg produced those tribes of Mesopotamia to which Abraham belonged (Gen 11:16-26). The name ‘Hebrew’, by which Abraham and his descendants were known, was taken from the name ‘Eber’ (Gen 10:21; 14:13; 39:17; Exod 1:22; see HEBREW). So too, it seems, was the name ‘Habiru’, by which semi-nomadic peoples in general were known. The word eber meant ‘to pass over or through’.

EDOM

The name Edom meant ‘red’ and was given to Esau, his descendants, and the land they later occupied (Gen 36:1,8-9). Esau was red haired, he exchanged his birthright for red bean soup, and Edom was a land of red soil (Gen 25:25,30; 2 Kings 3:20,22).

Features of the land

Edom’s territory stretched from the southern tip of the Dead Sea down to the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqabah (the north-eastern arm of the Red Sea). It was a mountainous region, divided down the centre by a semi-desert valley known as the Arabah. Chief among Edom’s mountains was Mt Seir, after which the land was sometimes called (Gen 14:6; 32:3; 36:21; Deut 2:1,4,12; Josh 15:1; 1 Kings 9:26). (For details of the Arabah see PALESTINE.) The Edomites’ security depended largely on a strong defence system they had built throughout their mountains (2 Chron 25:11-12; Obad 1-4). Chief of Edom’s mountain towns were Sela, Bozrah and Teman (2 Kings 14:7; Isa 34:6; 63:1; Jer 49:20,22; Amos 1:11-12). Teman was famous for its wisdom teachers (Job 2:11; Jer 49:7; Obad 8-9). The other important population centres of Edom were the twin towns of Ezion-geber and Elath on the Gulf of Aqabah (Deut 2:8; 2 Chron 8:17). Since much of Edom’s land was unsuitable for farming, and since Edom’s Red Sea ports gave it control over important trade routes, many of the Edomites were traders rather than farmers (Amos 1:6,9).

Old Testament history of Edom

An important road known as the King’s Highway ran through Edom. From Ezion-geber it went north over the mountainous plateau on the east of the Arabah to Moab, Ammon and Syria. The Israelites of Moses’ time wanted to use this road on their journey to Canaan, but Edom and Moab refused permission, forcing the Israelites to detour around the borders (Num 20:14-21; 21:10- 13,21-26; 33:35-37; Judg 11:15-24). There was some conflict between Israel and Edom during the reign of Saul (1 Sam 14:47), but in the reign of David Israel conquered Edom and took political control of the country (2 Sam 8:13-14; 1 Kings 11:15-16). Solomon in turn established a fleet of ocean-going ships at Ezion-geber. These ships carried goods to and from India and other countries, thereby bringing him considerable profit (1 Kings 9:26-28; 10:22; 22:48). The strategic and economic importance of Ezion-geber and Elath was one cause of later conflicts between Judah and Edom. When Judah weakened during the reign of Jehoram, Edom regained its independence (2 Kings 8:20-22). Under Amaziah, Judah conquered the mountain regions of Edom, and under Azariah it took control of Ezion-geber (2 Kings 14:7,22). Judah lost Ezion-geber to Edom in the reign of Ahaz and never regained it (2 Kings 16:6). When Judah finally fell and Jerusalem was destroyed by Babylon (587 BC), the Edomites took wicked delight in joining with the Babylonians to try to wipe out the last traces of the ancient Israelite nation. When the Jerusalemites tried to flee the city, the Edomites blocked their path, captured them and handed them over to the Babylonians. They also joined the Babylonians in plundering the city (Ps 137:7; Obad 10-14). Because of this violent hatred of the Israelite people, God assured Edom of a fitting punishment (Jer 49:7-22; Lam 4:21-22; Ezek 25:12-14; 35:15; Joel 3:19; Amos 1:11-12).

Later history

Some time after the destruction of Jerusalem, Edom itself was destroyed, as the prophets had foretold (Mal 1:2-4). In their search for refuge and security, many Edomites moved west across the Arabah and settled in Judean territory around Hebron. Various Arab groups mingled with them, and the region later became known as Idumea (Mark 3:8). Years later, after the Romans had conquered Palestine (63 BC), an Idumean named Herod was appointed ‘king’ of Palestine under the governing authority of Rome. This man, known as Herod the Great, was the person who tried to kill the infant Jesus (Matt 2:1-19; see HEROD). The modern nation of Israel includes this Idumean territory along with much of old Edom, and extends to the Red Sea port of Elath (or Elat).

EDUCATION

In early times there were no schools such as we know them today, and most children were educated at home. It was the responsibility of parents to teach their children the history and social customs of their nation, to instruct them in right living and to prepare them for adult life. This preparation involved teaching and training in reading, writing, crafts, trades and household work (Exod 13:8,14; Deut 4:9-10; Prov 1:8; 4:1-9; 31:1). In the case of Israelites, parents had a particular responsibility to teach their children the religion given them by God (Deut 6:6-9). Christian parents have a similar responsibility (Eph 6:4; 2 Tim 1:5; 3:15; see FAMILY). People of higher social status often received a more formal education through private instructors who were appointed as the children’s guardians (2 Kings 10:1; Acts 7:22; Gal 3:24-25).

Institutions known as wisdom schools were later established for the teaching and training of upper class people in philosophical thought (Eccles 12:9,11; Jer 18:18; see WISDOM LITERATURE). Prophets also had schools for the training of their disciples (2 Kings 2:3; 4:38; Isa 8:16; see PROPHET). For ordinary Israelites, the highest academic instruction they received was the teaching of the law of Moses. Originally the priests were the teachers, but by New Testament times the scribes had taken over most of the teaching activity (Deut 33:10; Ezra 7:6,10; Neh 8:1-4,8; Matt 23:2-3; see SCRIBES). The power of the scribes had developed along with the establishment of places known as synagogues, which became centres of instruction for Jewish people in general (Matt 4:23; Luke 4:16-21; see SYNAGOGUE). Jewish men could, if they wished, receive a more thorough education in the Jewish law by becoming students of learned Jewish teachers (John 3:10; Acts 5:34; see RABBI). They usually sat at the feet of their teachers (Acts 22:3), and learnt by memorizing facts and having question-and-answer sessions with their teachers (Deut 31:19; Luke 2:46). These teachers often taught in the temple (Matt 26:55; Luke 2:46; cf. 19:47).

(Concerning teachers in the church see TEACHER.) In addition to education in this traditional religious setting, education in a Greek philosophical setting was also common in New Testament times. This created difficulties for Christians, because of the conflicts between values taught in this kind of education and values taught in Christian homes and churches (1 Cor 1:20-25; Col 2:8). Such conflicts will always exist. Christians may consider that when a government accepts responsibility for the education of its citizens, it is fulfilling part of its God-given task. It is helping provide for society’s well-being (Rom 13:4). But this does not relieve Christian parents and church leaders of their responsibilities concerning the proper instruction, development and growth of those within their care (Eph 4:13-15; 6:4; 2 Tim 3:14-17; Heb 5:14; 13:17; see also ETHICS).

EGYPT

In spite of the ancient culture and civilization for which Egypt is famous, the feature highlighted in the Bible is that Egypt was a place of bondage out of which God redeemed his people (Exod 6:6-7; 15:1- 12; 20:2; Deut 6:12; Josh 24:17). Throughout their history, the people of Israel celebrated their deliverance from Egypt, reminding themselves that God’s grace and power alone had saved them (Lev 23:43; Deut 16:1-3; 1 Sam 10:17-18; Neh 9:16-17; Ps 106:7-12; Dan 9:15; Amos 2:10; Micah 7:15; Acts 7:17-19,36; see PASSOVER). Egypt continued to be involved in the history of God’s people, and is mentioned often throughout the period of the Old Testament period. Even the New Testament opens with a reference to Egypt, for Mary and Joseph spent a time there with the baby Jesus (Matt 2:13-15).

The land and the people

Less than one twentieth of ancient Egypt was usable land, and almost the whole of Egypt’s population lived in that area. Most of the remaining land was desert. Rain fell only rarely, and the country was dependent almost entirely on the Nile River for its water supply. Egypt was divided into two main parts, Upper and Lower. Upper Egypt, to the south, was desert except for the Nile Valley, where soil left behind after the annual flooding of the Nile made the land usable for a few kilometres either side of the river. Lower Egypt, to the north, consisted mainly of the flat and often swampy Delta that stretched from Cairo (Memphis) to the Mediterranean Sea, 180 kilometres away (see NILE). A stream called the Brook (or River) of Egypt, which formed part of the south-western boundary of the land promised to Israel, was not the Nile River but the Wadi El-Arish. It flowed out of the Sinai Peninsular into the Mediterranean Sea. This was a very practical boundary from Israel’s point of view. It excluded the useless desert land of the Wilderness of Shur to the west, but included the usable farming and grazing land to the east (Num 34:1-5; Josh 15:4,47; 1 Kings 8:65; Isa 27:12). The people of Egypt appear to have been a mixture of Hamites and Semites. The descendants of Ham developed their own culture throughout lands of northern Africa, and were called Mizraim by the Hebrews (Gen 10:6; Ps 78:51; 105:23,27). From very early times, other peoples mingled with the Hamites, among them the Semites (descendants of Shem). The Semitic influence was the chief cause of the advanced civilization that was already established in Egypt at the time Israel became prominent in the Bible story. For most of this period the capital of Egypt was Memphis, on virtually the same site as present-day Cairo (Jer 44:1; Hosea 9:6; see MEMPHIS). Nearby was the city of sun worship, which the Egyptians called On and the Greeks called Heliopolis (Gen 41:45; Jer 43:13; cf. Isa 19:18). Pharaoh was the title given to all Egyptian kings, and was used either by itself or attached to the king’s personal name (Exod 5:1; 2 Kings 23:29; see PHARAOH). The people considered the king to be a god and did not question his laws. Egyptians worshipped many gods, most of them gods of nature and therefore concerned with the Nile, on which the life of Egypt depended (Exod 12:12). Pharaoh was considered to be a god-king who embodied one of these gods. At his death he passed from the world of the humans to the world of the gods, which explains why the Pharaohs built for themselves elaborate tombs such as the pyramids.

Bible history up till the exodus

After about a thousand years of development and progress under successive Egyptian dynasties, the native Egyptian rulers gradually lost their power to aggressive chiefs among recent Semitic immigrants. These foreign chiefs (in Egyptian called Hyksos) eventually took over the country (about 1720 BC). The Hyksos continued the traditional Egyptian style of government, with the leader becoming the Pharaoh. Egyptian officials handled the day-to-day administration as previously. However, during the century and a half of the Hyksos dynasties, a number of Semites (such as Joseph) were appointed to high positions in the Egyptian government. At the same time official procedures and traditions remained thoroughly Egyptian (Gen 41:14,40-45; 43:32; 46:34; 47:22,26; 50:2-3,26). Egyptian princes overthrew the Hyksos and established a new dynasty about 1570 BC. This was a turning point in Egyptian history, and the next five hundred years was the period of Egypt’s greatest power and magnificence. For most of this time the capital was at Thebes in Upper Egypt. This was a magnificent city, a fact reflected in the Hebrew word no, by which the Israelites called the city (Jer 46:25; Ezek 30:16; Nahum 3:8; see THEBES). Meanwhile the descendants of Jacob, who had migrated to Egypt during the time of the Hyksos, had multiplied greatly. The Egyptian rulers, fearing and despising these Semite migrants, introduced laws against them and eventually made them slaves. This provided the Pharaohs with a cheap work force for their extensive building programs. One of the cities that the Hebrew slaves built was Rameses (or Ra’amses) in the Nile Delta. (It was probably the former Hyksos capital, Avaris, rebuilt.) The building program included a palace, storehouses and defence installations (Exod 1:8-11; see RAMESES). The Pharaohs lived in luxury and their large harems usually included many foreign women. It was therefore not unusual for non-Egyptian children to grow up in the palace (Exod 2:10). Pharaoh also had magicians and wise men, who were among his chief advisers (Exod 7:11; 8:19). (For Moses’ conflict with Pharaoh see PHARAOH; PLAGUE.)

Bible history during the Israelite monarchy

Apart from the events that led up to and included the exodus (1280 BC), Egypt had little to do with Israel during the five hundred years of Egypt’s greatest power. This time of Egyptian greatness came to an end about 1085 BC, and the story of the nation from then on is one of decline. The capital from 1085 to 660 BC was Rameses, renamed Zoan (Isa 19:11,13; 30:4). About 970 BC Solomon, king of Israel, married the daughter of the Pharaoh of Egypt as part of a treaty designed to strengthen the security and commercial life of both kingdoms (1 Kings 3:1; 4:21; 10:28-29). But when that Pharaoh died, the new Pharaoh, fearful of Israel’s increasing power, encouraged rebellions within Israel. He also supported guerilla attacks around its borders, and on one occasion he himself attacked and plundered Jerusalem (1 Kings 11:14-22,40; 14:25-27). During the time of Israel’s divided kingdom, both sections were at times tempted to rely on Egypt for help against Assyria. They were always disappointed (2 Kings 17:4-6; 18:21,24; Isa 30:1-3; 31:1). Also during this time Assyria destroyed the former Egyptian capital, Thebes (Nahum 3:8-10). When Babylon conquered the Assyrian capital Nineveh in 612 BC, Pharaoh Necho of Egypt went to help what was left of Assyria to withstand Babylon. Josiah, king of Judah, opposed Necho, fearing that this Egyptian-Assyrian alliance was a threat to his independence. Judah was defeated and Josiah killed. Necho now considered himself controller of Judah and placed a heavy tax on it (2 Kings 23:28-35). But in 605 BC Babylon conquered Egypt in the Battle of Carchemish, and so became the new master of Judah (2 Kings 24:7; Jer 46:2). After serving Babylon for a time, the Judean king rebelled, bringing a punishing invasion from Babylon. Babylon then appointed a new Judean king, Zedekiah, but after a while he too sought Egyptian aid in rebelling against Babylon, a policy that Jeremiah and Ezekiel strongly opposed (2 Kings 24:18-20; Jer 2:16-18,36-37; 21:1-10; 37:6-10; Ezek 17:12-16; 29:6-9). This brought a further attack by Babylon, resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BC and the deportation of most of the Judeans to Babylon (2 Kings 25:1-21). Gedaliah, a Judean official, was appointed by the Babylonians as governor of those who remained in Judah. He encouraged the people to submit to Babylon and not to look for support against Babylon from Egypt. But the pro-Egyptian group murdered Gedaliah. The remaining Judeans, fearing a revenge attack by Babylon, fled for their lives to Egypt (2 Kings 25:22-26; Jer 40:13-43:7).

Summary of later history

In another battle, in 568 BC, Babylon defeated Egypt again, this time not on foreign soil but in Egypt itself (Jer 46:13-24; Ezek 29:17-20, 30:20-26). Babylon then forced Egypt to join it in resisting the rising power of Persia, but the attempt was unsuccessful. Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC, and conquered Egypt in 525 BC. Egypt rebelled against Persia whenever the opportunity arose, till in 341 BC the last native ruler of Egypt was removed (cf. Ezek 32:1-16). With Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BC, Egypt came under the rule of the Greeks. In New Testament times it was ruled by the Romans (Acts 21:38). In the third century AD it became a nominally Christian country, but in 641 AD it was conquered by the Moslems and has remained under Moslem control ever since.

EKRON

The town of Ekron was one of the ‘five cities of the Philistines’ (Josh 13:3; 1 Sam 6:17-18). It had a history of conflict with Israel from the time that Israel first entered Canaan. It changed hands between the Philistines and the Israelites frequently (see PHILISTIA). The Philistines considered Ekron to be the home of the god Baal-zebub (2 Kings 1:2-3; see BEELZEBUL).

ELAM

Elam was an ancient kingdom north of the Persian Gulf in the region of Mesopotamia. Later it became part of Persia, and its name was sometimes used as another name for Persia. For details see PERSIA.

ELATH

See EZION-GEBER.

ELDER

Within the community of God’s people, God marks out certain people for responsibilities of care and leadership. The Bible refers to these people by a number of words, one of them ‘elders’. This is the word that the Old Testament uses for those in Israel who exercised leadership in the community (Exod 24:1; Deut 21:1-6; Ruth 4:2-11; 1 Sam 8:4; see RULER), and that the New Testament uses for Jewish officials who administered Jewish affairs through the synagogue councils and the Sanhedrin (Mark 15:1; Luke 7:3; Acts 4:5; see SANHEDRIN; SYNAGOGUE). It is also the word that the New Testament uses for leaders in God’s new community, the church (Acts 14:23; 15:4).

Developments in church leadership

The first Christian church was in Jerusalem, and in its early days its leadership came from the group of apostles whom Jesus had earlier appointed (Acts 4:37; 6:2; 11:1). God did not provide these apostles with a master plan of detailed procedures upon which they were to structure the church, whether in Jerusalem or elsewhere. Instead he left them to respond to the church’s needs as his Spirit directed them. As the church grew, they introduced whatever organizational arrangements they considered necessary (e.g. Acts 6:1-6). As the church expanded into neighbouring regions and countries, the apostles had increasing responsibilities outside Jerusalem. Soon the church in Jerusalem had its own group of governing elders, and these were distinct from the apostles (Acts 11:30; 15:6). The practice of appointing elders was later copied in other churches (Acts 14:23), though there is not enough information to indicate whether the form of church government was the same in all the churches. The New Testament speaks consistently of leaders in the churches, though it does not always give them an official title (1 Cor 16:16; Gal 2:9; 1 Thess 5:12; Heb 13:7,17). Even where the Bible recognizes a title, the emphasis is usually more on the work the elders do than on the office they hold (Acts 20:17,28; 1 Thess 5:13; 1 Tim 3:1; 1 Peter 5:1-3). English versions of the Bible use various words for church leaders – ‘elders’, ‘overseers’, ‘guardians’, ‘bishops’. These names are translations of only two words in the Greek of the original New Testament, presbuteroi and episkopoi, and both words seem to apply to the same office and person. For example (quoting the RSV), in Acts 20:17 Paul sends for the elders (presbuteroi) of the Ephesian church, but when they arrive (v. 28) he calls them guardians (episkopoi). Likewise in Titus 1:5 he tells Titus to appoint elders (presbuteroi), and then in the same sentence (v. 7) he calls them bishops (episkopoi). In reference to any specific local church, the Bible always speaks of a plurality of elders (Acts 14:23; 20:17; Phil 1:1; 1 Thess 5:12).

Responsibilities of elders

Elders are likened to shepherds over a flock. They are the leaders of the church, whom God has placed over the church to guide it and care for it (Acts 20:28; 1 Tim 3:5; 5:17; Heb 13:17; 1 Peter 5:1-3; see PASTOR; SHEPHERD). Others in the church can help the elders by taking responsibility for many of the practical ministries of the church. In this way they give the elders more time for the important pastoral ministries God has entrusted to them (Acts 6:2-4; James 5:14; see DEACON). All elders should have some ability at teaching (1 Tim 3:2), though some will be more gifted than others, and therefore more occupied than others, in public preaching (1 Tim 5:17). Through their own ministry and that of teachers from elsewhere, elders should provide the church with teaching that is upbuilding and protect it from what is harmful (Acts 20:28-30; Titus 1:9). Elders must therefore be people of discernment (1 Tim 1:3-7; 6:3-5; 2 Tim 2:14-16; 2 John 7-11). In addition to having qualifications in relation to gift and ability, each elder must fulfil certain minimum requirements in relation to his character and behaviour. As a leader he is in a position of example to others, and therefore his family life and public reputation must be of the highest order (1 Tim 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). Any accusation of wrongdoing against an elder must be supported by witnesses. If the elder is proved guilty, he should be publicly rebuked, again because of the high standards required of those in positions of leadership (1 Tim 5:19-20).

Appointment of elders

The Bible gives no specific instructions concerning how elders are chosen or appointed. In the case of the churches that Paul and Barnabas established in Galatia, the first elders were appointed by those who planted the churches (Acts 14:23). Normally, people should not be appointed elders too soon after their conversion, because time is needed for Christian character and spiritual gift to develop (1 Tim 3:6; 5:22). If a church is left without elders, it is liable to lose direction (Titus 1:5,10-11). Those who have the responsibility to appoint elders must realize that only the Holy Spirit can really make a person an elder (Acts 20:28; 1 Cor 12:11,28). They should also make sure, through prayer and consultation with the church as a whole, that those whom they appoint are those whom the church recognizes as elders. Church members must have confidence in their leaders if they are to respect them and heed their instruction (1 Thess 5:12-13; Heb 13:17). They should also give the elders suitable payment for the work they do and the time they spend in the service of the church (1 Tim 5:17-18; cf. Gal 6:6). With the passing of years and the growth of the church, additional elders will be needed. Certain believers may recognize the direction in which their spiritual gifts are developing and desire to be elders (1 Tim 3:1; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT). People in the church will recognize his gift; in fact, elders have a responsibility to train those who appear to have leadership ability (2 Tim 2:2; cf. Acts 13:5; 16:1-3). The example of the apostles in the early church suggests that the existing elders are the ones who make the appointment (Acts 1:21-26; cf. 1 Tim 4:14; 5:22), but before doing so they find out the mind of the church (Acts 6:3; cf. 15:22). Some may be tempted to avoid eldership because of the difficulties and tensions that come with it (1 Peter 5:2a). Others may be tempted in the opposite direction, and try to use the position of elder to further their personal ambitions (1 Peter 5:2b,3). Elders can learn how to be true shepherds of the flock by following the example of the Chief Shepherd, Jesus Christ, who gave himself for it (1 Peter 5:4; cf. John 10:11; Eph 5:25).

ELEAZAR

Of the many people named Eleazar whom the Old Testament mentions, the most important was Eleazar, the third of Aaron’s four sons (Num 3:2). When Aaron became high priest, his four sons became his priest-assistants (Exod 28:1-4). After the death of the two older sons (Lev 10:1-2), Eleazar and his younger brother Ithamar were given greater responsibility. Eleazar was in overall charge of the Levites (Num 3:32). Within the division of the Levites according to their three family groups, Eleazar seems to have had responsibility for the Kohath group (which had the higher duties; Num 4:15-16), and Ithamar had responsibility for the other two groups (Num 4:28,33).

God had prepared Eleazar to succeed Aaron as high priest (cf. Num 16:37; 19:3-4), and directed that Aaron, before he died, publicly appoint Eleazar to office (Num 20:23-28). Eleazar then assisted Moses as Aaron had previously (Num 26:63; 27:2; 31:12; 32:2). God directed that when Moses died, the new leader Joshua would not speak to God face to face as Moses had, but would receive God’s instructions through the high priest Eleazar (Num 27:18-23). God directed also that Joshua and Eleazar together were to be in charge of the work of dividing Canaan between Israel’s twelve tribes (Num 34:17; cf. Josh 17:4; 19:51; 21:1). (Concerning Eleazar’s famous son see PHINEHAS.)

ELECTION

God is a loving and merciful God, and in his grace chooses people for purposes that he has planned. This exercise of God’s sovereign will is called election. In the Old Testament God’s election applied particularly to his choice of Abraham and, through Abraham, to his choice of Israel to be his people (Gen 12:1-3; Neh 9:7-8; Isa 41:8-9). From this people he produced one man, Jesus the Messiah, chosen by him before the foundation of the world to be the Saviour of the world (Luke 9:35; Acts 2:23; 4:27-28; Eph 1:9-10; 1 Peter 1:20; 2:4,6). All who believe in Jesus, whether Jew or Gentile, are the true people of God, the true descendants of Abraham (Rom 9:6-9; Gal 3:14,26-29). God has chosen them to receive his salvation, and together they form God’s people, the church (John 6:37,44; 15:19; 17:2,6; Eph 1:4-6; 2 Thess 2:13-14; 1 Peter 2:9). ‘The elect’ is therefore another name for the people of God (Matt 24:22; Luke 18:7; 2 Tim 2:10). God’s activity in determining beforehand what will happen, particularly in relation to people’s destiny, is sometimes called predestination. This predestination originates in God himself, who acts according to his own will and purpose (Ps 139:16; Isa 14:24; 37:26; 46:9-10; Matt 25:34; Acts 2:23; 4:27- 28; Eph 1:5; Rom 8:28-30; 1 Thess 5:9; see PREDESTINATION).

The gracious work of God

Election has its source in the sovereign love of God. No one deserves to be chosen by God, but in his immeasurable mercy he has chosen to save some (Rom 9:15; 11:5; Eph 1:5). God’s choice of people does not depend on anything of merit in them. It depends entirely on his unmerited favour towards them (Deut 7:6-8; 9:6; Rom 11:6; 1 Cor 1:27-29; 2 Tim 1:9; James 2:5). Neither does God choose people because he foresees their faith or their good intentions (Rom 9:11,16). Salvation is not a reward for faith. Faith is simply the means by which people receive the undeserved salvation that God, in his mercy, gives (Rom 9:16,30; Eph 2:8-9; see FAITH). Or, to put it another way, faith is the means by which God’s eternal choice becomes a reality in their earthly experience (Acts 13:48; 1 Thess 1:4-9). By coming to believe in Jesus, they show that God has chosen them. Eternal life is not their achievement, but God’s (John 6:37,40). All the merit for a person’s salvation is in Jesus Christ, whose work of atonement is the basis on which God can forgive repentant sinners (Rom 3:23-26; see JUSTIFICATION). They are chosen only because of their union with Christ, and they are to be changed into the likeness of Christ (Eph 1:4; 2 Tim 1:9; cf. Rom 8:29; 2 Thess 2:14). No one can argue with God concerning his work of election, for the entire human race is guilty before him and in no position to demand mercy from him. God is the sovereign Creator; human beings are but his rebellious creatures. The amazing thing is not that God shows mercy on only some, but that he shows mercy on any at all (Rom 9:14-23).

Election and calling

Sometimes the Bible speaks of God’s choosing as his calling (Isa 41:8-9; 51:2; Rom 9:11), but other times it makes a distinction (Matt 22:14; see CALL). God chose his people from eternity (Eph 1:4; 2 Tim 1:9) and determined to save those whom he had chosen (Rom 8:28-29; Eph 1:5,11). The historical event when each chosen person repented, believed, and accepted God’s salvation is sometimes spoken of as the call of God to that person (Rom 8:30; 9:23-24; 1 Thess 2:12; 2 Thess 2:13-14; 2 Tim 1:9). Side by side with the truth of the sovereign and divine will is the truth of human responsibility. The gospel is available to all, and those who refuse it have no one to blame but themselves (Rom 10:13; 1 Tim 2:3-4; 2 Peter 3:9). The knowledge that God has chosen sinners to receive salvation is a great encouragement to those who preach the gospel. It urges them on in their preaching, so that people might hear the message of grace that is God’s means of bringing his chosen to himself (John 10:14-16; 17:6-8; Acts 13:48; 18:10; Rom 10:13-14; 2 Tim 2:10). And the salvation of those who respond in faith is eternally secure; for it depends not upon their efforts, but upon the sovereign choice of God (John 6:37-40; 10:27-29; Rom 8:33-39; 11:29; see ASSURANCE).

Responsibilities of the elect

Although believers may feel secure because their salvation is centred in God, they deceive themselves if they think their behaviour is unimportant (2 Peter 1:9-11). There is nothing mechanical about election. Human beings are not lifeless robots manipulated by some impersonal fate. They are creatures made in God’s image, whose lives reflect their relationship with him. Those who have truly been chosen by God will show it by lives of perseverance in the faith he professes. The Bible often links statements about election with warnings and commands concerning the necessity for steadfastness, watchfulness and perseverance (Mark 13:13,22-23,27,33; Acts 13:48; 14:22; 1 Thess 5:23-24; 2 Thess 2:13-15; 1 Tim 6:11-12; see PERSEVERANCE). Those whom God has chosen to be his people are, by that fact, chosen to be holy (Deut 7:6; Eph 1:4; 1 Peter 1:15). Since they belong to God, they are to be separate from sin and uncleanness, bringing praise to him (Isa 43:21; Eph 1:12; 2 Thess 2:13; see HOLINESS). They are to reflect the glory of Christ now, and will one day share in that glory fully (Rom 8:29-30; 9:23; 1 Cor 2:7; 2 Thess 2:14). Part of God’s purpose in choosing them is that their lives might bear fruit for God, as they develop Christian character and do good for others (John 15:16; Eph 2:10). God has chosen them to be his channel of blessing to an everincreasing number of people (1 Peter 2:9-10; cf. Gen 12:1-3). Awareness of their election should not lead Christians to complacency. Rather the opposite, for God requires a higher standard of conduct in those who are his chosen people (Amos 3:2; Micah 3:9-12; 1 Peter 4:17). The way people live is the proof or disproof of their election (2 Peter 1:9-11; cf. Titus 1:1; 1 John 2:29; 3:10).

ELI

At the time when Eli was chief priest and chief administrator in Israel, the tabernacle was at Shiloh, in central Israel. Eli sat outside the tabernacle to give advice and settle disputes, while his sons carried out the routine work connected with the sacrifices and ceremonies (1 Sam 1:3,9; 4:18). Eli’s sons were corrupt, but Eli did not remove them from office, even though he disagreed with their conduct. God announced to Eli, first through a prophet and then through the boy Samuel, that he would punish Eli’s household with shame, poverty and early death. Only one would be left functioning as a priest, and eventually he too would be removed (1 Sam 2:12-36; 3:11-14). (For the fulfilment of these prophecies see 1 Sam 4:11; 14:3; 22:11-20; 1 Kings 2:26-27.)

ELIJAH

ELIJAH The chief purpose for which God raised up Elijah was to preserve in Israel the worship of Yahweh, Israel’s covenant God. Israel had always been tempted to mix the worship of their God with the religious practices of local Baalism (see BAAL), but matters suddenly worsened after Jezebel became queen. Jezebel was daughter of the king-priest of Philistia and had married King Ahab of Israel. She brought with her a new and more dangerous form of Baalism, which she then tried to make the national religion of Israel. This was the Baalism of the god Melqart, whose influence had already spread south along the Mediterranean coast as far as Mt Carmel (1 Kings 16:30-33).

Early resistance to Baalism

Baal was supposed to control nature and fertility. Therefore, to show the powerlessness of Baal, Elijah announced a three-year drought throughout Israel and Phoenicia. God’s miraculous provisions of food, both in Israel and in Phoenicia, showed that he, not Baal, was the God of nature (1 Kings 17:1- 4,9,16; cf. Luke 4:25,26). Elijah’s healing of the widow’s son confirmed the woman’s faith in the one true God (1 Kings 17:24). After three years of drought, Elijah challenged Ahab to gather Baal’s prophets to Mt Carmel for a public contest to show who was the true God, Yahweh or Baal (1 Kings 18:19-21). The Baal priests considered Mt Carmel to be one of their sacred sites, yet even there they were shamefully defeated (1 Kings 18:40). As a final proof that Israel’s God, not Baal, controlled nature, Elijah announced that God would end the drought by sending a storm. That same day the drought ended (1 Kings 18:41-46; cf. James 5:17-18). Elijah felt that he was fighting alone in his battle with Jezebel’s Baalism (1 Kings 18:22; Rom 11:1- 5). This feeling was strengthened when, in spite of his spectacular victory over Baal at Mt Carmel, nothing in Israel seemed to have changed. The people did not cease from their Baal worship, and Jezebel did not cease from her efforts to kill him. He therefore fled for his life (1 Kings 19:1-3). God directed Elijah south to Mt Sinai, the place where, centuries earlier, he had established his covenant with Israel. There he showed Elijah the difference between spectacular public events and the quiet work of God within people’s hearts. The former may have some use, but Israel would have truly lasting benefits only as people listened to the voice of God in their hearts and responded to it. God assured Elijah that a minority of people in Israel would make the quiet response of faithfulness to him (1 Kings 19:10-12,18). For Israel’s idolatrous majority, however, there would be further violent and spectacular events, but these would be in judgment against them rather than against Baal. God’s instruments of judgment against Israel would be an enemy king Hazael, an Israelite king Jehu, and Elijah’s successor Elisha (1 Kings 19:15-21).

Ministry fulfilled

In addition to opposing Ahab and Jezebel because of their Baalism, Elijah opposed them because of their greed and injustice. After their seizure of Naboth’s vineyard, Elijah announced the judgment of God upon them (1 Kings 21:20-24). Ahab’s son Ahaziah, who came to the throne after Ahab’s death, continued the worship of Baal and likewise met opposition from Elijah. God preserved Elijah from Ahaziah’s attempts to capture him, and then used Elijah to pronounce certain death upon the Baalist king (2 Kings 1:2-4,13-17). The time had now come for Elijah to pass on to Elisha the responsibility for preserving the faithful and preparing judgment for the Baalists. Elijah tested his young successor to see whether he was prepared for the difficult and wide-ranging work ahead, or whether he would rather settle at one of the schools of the prophets (2 Kings 2:1-6). Elisha stayed with Elijah to the end, and in due course received Elijah’s spiritual inheritance (2 Kings 2:9). Elijah’s earthly life ended when he was taken up to heaven in a whirlwind (2 Kings 2:11). Jews of a later era expected the return of Elijah immediately before the coming of the Messiah (Mal 4:5-6; Mark 6:15; 8:27-28). Jesus pointed out that this ‘Elijah’, this forerunner of the Messiah, was John the Baptist (Matt 11:10-14; 17:10-13; Luke 1:17). On the occasion of Jesus’ transfiguration, Elijah and Moses appeared together talking with Jesus about his coming death, and witnessing something of his coming glory. These two men, the great lawgiver and the great prophet, were representative figures from the former era. Their presence symbolized that the one to whom the law and the prophets pointed had now arrived. All the expectations of the former era were now fulfilled in Jesus Christ (Luke 9:28-31; cf. 24:27; see TRANSFIGURATION).

ELISHA

At the time of the ministry of Elijah and Elisha, Israel’s ancient religion was threatened by the Baalism that Jezebel had brought with her from Phoenicia. Through her husband, King Ahab of Israel, Jezebel had tried to establish Phoenician Baalism as the official religion of Israel (1 Kings 16:30-33). The man who began the long and difficult job of removing this Baalism from Israel was the prophet Elijah (see ELIJAH). By God’s direction Elijah passed on the unfinished task to Elisha (1 Kings 19:16,19), whose ministry lasted through the reigns of six Israelite kings. The extent of his ministry was about fifty years. The period was the latter half of the ninth century BC.

Successor to Elijah

From the beginning Elisha showed a willingness to succeed Elijah, in spite of the obvious difficulties ahead. Originally a farmer, he gave up his former way of life for the unpopular task of being God’s messenger to the hardened and idolatrous people of Israel (1 Kings 19:19-21). Like Elijah, Elisha would have to move around the country, strengthening the believers and opposing the idolaters. Elijah tested him to see if he would try to avoid some of the difficulties by remaining at one of the schools for young prophets. But Elisha was determined to carry on Elijah’s work. He was Elijah’s spiritual heir, and he remained with Elijah to the end to receive the spiritual inheritance (2 Kings 2:1-12). A miracle at the Jordan River quickly proved that God’s power had now passed from Elijah to Elisha (2 Kings 2:13-14). Many more miracles would follow, showing what a serious threat Jezebel’s Baalism was to Israel’s national life. Elisha’s ministry was to be twofold. It was to be concerned on the one hand with preserving the faithful minority in Israel (the remnant), and on the other with preparing judgment for the unfaithful nation (1 Kings 19:15-18). His first two miracles symbolized these characteristics of blessing and cursing. To those who were in need he brought healing, but to those who rejected his message he brought judgment (2 Kings 2:19-25). A combined Israelite-Judean attack on Moab gave Elisha the opportunity to demonstrate to the two kings his opposition to Baal. He refused to help the Baal-worshipping Israelite king, though he passed on advice to the godly Judean king (2 Kings 3:9-15).

Caring for the faithful minority

Faithful believers were rare in Israel, and Elisha had to help preserve them, lest the true worship of Yahweh vanish from the nation. He helped the poor widow of one of the godly prophets by giving her a miraculous supply of oil that saved her entire family (2 Kings 4:1-7). He also secured the future for a wealthy believer by giving her a son. When, years later, the son died, Elisha brought him back to life (2 Kings 4:8-37). Many of the faithful were to be found in the schools where young men trained to be prophets. Like Elijah before him, Elisha moved around these schools, with the aim of strengthening those who could later help rebuild the religious life of the nation (2 Kings 2:1-7,15; 4:38; 6:1). These communities were very poor. They had difficulty getting enough food to eat each day, and they lacked even the basic tools to rebuild their inadequate housing. In one place Elisha worked a miracle to save the day’s food from being lost, and in another he miraculously recovered a borrowed tool that had fallen into the river (2 Kings 4:38-41; 6:1-7). On one occasion he miraculously multiplied a gift of food to feed a large group of his followers (2 Kings 4:42-44). By the healing of Naaman, Elisha showed God’s power to the commander of the army (Syria) that God was going to use to punish Israel (2 Kings 5:1-14; cf. 1 Kings 19:15-17). Naaman’s knowledge of the one true God was still imperfect, but at least he had a more sincere faith in Yahweh than did many Israelites (2 Kings 5:15-19).

Caring for the faithful minority

Preparing Israel for judgment

God’s intention to use Syria to punish his people did not mean that Elisha had to desert Israel and join the Syrians. In fact, the Syrians saw him as an enemy and tried to capture him. Instead Elisha captured the Syrian soldiers and led them to the Israelite capital, Samaria. When the Israelite king wanted to kill them, Elisha directed him to feed them. The incident brought a temporary peace, and should have taught both nations that God controlled their destinies (2 Kings 6:8-23). Neither king learnt much from the incident. The Syrian king attacked Jerusalem afresh, and the Israelite king blamed Elisha for the suffering that resulted (2 Kings 6:24-31). Elisha assured Israel’s king that the siege would be broken and there would be plenty of food the next day. But when Elisha’s prediction proved to be true, the king was slow to believe (2 Kings 7:1-15). Syria’s partly successful attacks on Israel were only the beginning. The attacks would become increasingly successful and violent. When Hazael of Syria murdered his king and seized the throne, a new era of terror began. Elisha wept when he saw the trouble that Hazael’s cruelty would bring upon Israel (2 Kings 8:7-15; cf. 1 Kings 19:15). With Hazael now king of Syria, the time had arrived for Elisha to carry out his last major responsibility, the anointing of Jehu to be king of Israel. Jehu’s job was to remove Jezebel’s Baalism from Israel’s leadership by destroying Ahab, Jezebel and all their Baal-worshipping family (2 Kings 9:1-10; cf. 1 Kings 19:16-17; see JEHU). Elisha lived to see the divine judgment carried out, first on Ahab’s family and then on Israel as a whole. After that, he saw the beginnings of Israel’s recovery, and might have seen Israel overthrow Syrian power completely had not the Israelite king been lacking in faith (2 Kings 13:14-19). Even after Elisha’s death, dramatic events at his burial place showed that the God he served was still alive and powerful (2 Kings 13:20-21).

ELIZABETH

Both Zechariah and Elizabeth, the parents of John the Baptist, belonged to the vast priestly family descended from Aaron (Luke 1:5). Elizabeth was also related to Mary the mother of Jesus (Luke 1:36). For some time Zechariah and Elizabeth were unable to have children, but in answer to their prayers (for they were godly people) God promised them a son. They were to name him John (Luke 1:6-7,13). When Elizabeth was six months pregnant, Mary visited her, bringing news that she (Mary) was to be the mother of the promised Messiah (Luke 1:35-36,39-40). Elizabeth, far from being in any way jealous, was overjoyed, and interpreted the movement of the baby in her womb as a sign that it too was overjoyed (Luke 1:41-45). Elizabeth and Zechariah knew that their child was to become the forerunner of the Messiah (Luke 1:13-17). Some remarkable incidents at the child’s birth caused even the local villagers to realize that this child was destined for greatness (Luke 1:57-66).

ENCOURAGEMENT

The subject of encouragement covers a wide range of issues and behaviour. This applies in relation to God’s encouragement of his people and to his people’s encouragement of one another. A common form of encouragement is to give comfort and help, whether to those who are sorrowful (2 Sam 10:2; Isa 61:2; Matt 5:4; Rom 12:15; see SORROW), those who fear (Exod 14:13; Ps 23:4; Matt 14:27; Rev 2:10; see FEAR), those who are persecuted (Ps 86:17; Isa 49:13; John 16:33; 1 Peter 4:12-14; see PERSECUTION), or those who are experiencing any other form of weakness, despair or suffering (Isa 40:1-2; Zeph 3:16; Matt 9:2,22; Acts 23:11; see SUFFERING). When God’s people go through unpleasant experiences, one beneficial result is that they are able to comfort others who may have similar experiences (2 Cor 1:3-5).

But encouragement involves more than giving cheer to the disheartened. Positively, it involves giving support to people in such a way that they will have greater confidence, enthusiasm and strength in their lives and service for God (Deut 3:28; Zech 4:6-9; Acts 4:36; 9:26-27; 1 Cor 14:3-4; Phil 1:6; 4:19; see HOPE). Encouragement may often include words of teaching, warning and perhaps rebuke, as mature leaders among God’s people urge their fellows to greater effort in their devotion to God. This will require patience in those who give the advice and in those who receive it (Josh 1:6-7,9; 1 Cor 4:14; Col 1:28; 3:16; 1 Thess 2:11-12; 3:2; 5:14; Heb 13:22; see PATIENCE). Through having right attitudes towards the giving and receiving of encouragement in all its forms, believers will develop Christian character. At the same time they will understand better the nature of God who, as Father, Son and Holy Spirit, is the God of all comfort (2 Cor 1:3; Phil 2:1; Acts 9:31). (Concerning references to the Holy Spirit as ‘the Comforter’ see HOLY SPIRIT.)

ENDURANCE

God has made it plain that his people will at times meet suffering, hardship, persecution and other trials. Through their endurance, however, they will prove God’s faithfulness and develop true Christian character (Rom 5:3-4; 2 Cor 1:6; 2 Thess 1:3-4; 2 Tim 2:3-6,10-13; Heb 11:27; James 1:12; see PERSECUTION; SUFFERING; TESTING). Endurance means that Christians will have to tolerate insults and injustice (1 Cor 6:7; 13:7; 2 Tim 3:10-11); but through persistence in prayer and the inward work of the Holy Spirit, they will be able to rejoice through it all (Rom 12:11-12; Gal 5:22). (For discussion on this aspect of endurance see PATIENCE.) Endurance means that Christians must always persevere, no matter what the difficulties and temptations. They must maintain their faith in Christ firm to the end (Matt 24:13; Eph 6:13; Heb 3:14; 6:15; Rev 13:10). (For discussion on this aspect of endurance see PERSEVERANCE.)

ENEMY

Although Christians are to try to live peaceably with everyone (Rom 12:18), their identification with Jesus Christ means that some will oppose them. Therefore, they will have enemies. The enemies of Christians become the enemies of God, and the enemies of God become the enemies of Christians (Exod 23:22; Ps 37:20; 55:2-3; Matt 10:22,36). In spite of this, Christians are to love their enemies and do good to those who hate them (Matt 5:44; Luke 6:27; Rom 12:20; see HATRED). The Bible speaks of enemies other than one’s fellow human beings; for example, Satan, death and evil spiritual forces. But Christ has conquered all these through his death and resurrection, and in the day of his final victory he will destroy them for ever (Matt 13:39; Luke 10:18; 1 Cor 15:25-28; Col 2:15; Heb 10:12-13).

ENOCH

Death is one of the evil consequences of human sin, and the genealogical record of the generations from Adam to Noah is characterized by repetition of the word ‘death’ (Gen 5:5,8,11,14,17,20). The case of Enoch, however, was different. He was a man who lived his life in such close fellowship with God that God took him to be with himself without Enoch’s having to die first (Gen 5:22-24; Heb 11:5). In this way God gave hope to the righteous that death’s apparent conquest is not permanent. God has power over it. Thousands of years later, when Jews were becoming increasingly interested in heaven and the afterlife, there was much interest in Enoch. During the last centuries of the era before Christ, people wrote books in his name, and the New Testament quotes one of these as containing a prophecy from Enoch (Jude 14-15). The only other person named Enoch in the Bible also belonged to the earliest period of biblical history. He was a son of Cain, but the Bible says little about him (Gen 4:17-18).

ENVY

See JEALOUSY

EPHAH

An ephah was the basic measurement of capacity that the Israelites used when measuring volumes of grain. It was equal to about thirty-seven litres (Lev 6:20; Ruth 2:17; 1 Sam 17:17). Over the years the word ‘ephah’ became also the name of the container people used to measure the grain (Lev 19:36; Amos 8:5; Zech 5:6-9). (For fuller details of the system that Israelites used to measure capacity see MEASUREMENT.)

EPHESUS

Ephesus was the chief city of the Roman province of Asia (part of present-day Turkey). The church in Ephesus probably began through the work of Priscilla and Aquila, whom Paul left in Ephesus after visiting the city briefly at the end of his second missionary journey (Acts 18:18-21). (For map of the region see ASIA.)

Early developments

An important visitor during the early days of the Ephesian church was Apollos, a Jewish teacher from Alexandria in Egypt. Though eloquent, Apollos was lacking in the knowledge of certain Christian teachings, till Priscilla and Aquila taught him more accurately (Acts 18:24-28). The time of the church’s greatest growth came when Paul returned at the beginning of his third missionary journey and spent three years in the city (Acts 20:31). During this time the zealous Ephesian converts evangelized most of the province of Asia (Acts 19:8-10). The people of Ephesus were well known for their superstition and magic, and some dramatic events accompanied the people’s response to Paul’s preaching (Acts 19:11-20). The city was considered to be the home of the goddess Artemis (or Diana) and contained a magnificent temple built in her honour (Acts 19:27-28,35). As the people of Ephesus turned in increasing numbers from the worship of Artemis to faith in Jesus, tensions arose in the city. The silversmiths who made small household shrines of the goddess found themselves going out of business and stirred up a riot. It took the city authorities several hours to restore order (Acts 19:23-41). Some time during his three years in Ephesus, Paul wrote the letter we know as First Corinthians (1 Cor 16:8-9,19). While in Ephesus Paul met violent opposition and suffered physical harm. On one occasion he almost lost his life (1 Cor 15:32; 16:8-9; cf. 2 Cor 1:8-9). Ephesus was no doubt the scene of some of the sufferings that Paul later records in 2 Cor 11:23-29, and possibly he suffered one of his imprisonments there.

Later difficulties

Before leaving Ephesus at the end of his third missionary journey, Paul warned that false teachers would trouble the church (Acts 20:17,28-31). This proved to be so, and Paul’s letter to the Ephesians, which he wrote during his first imprisonment in Rome, deals with some of the wrong ideas that had become widespread in and around Ephesus (see EPHESIANS, LETTER TO THE). After his release from Rome, Paul revisited the church in Ephesus to try to correct the wrong teaching. When he moved on, he left Timothy behind to continue corrective teaching. He also wrote Timothy two letters to help him in this task (1 Tim 1:3-7; 6:3-5; 2 Tim 1:18; 2:14-16). The false teaching that the apostle John condemned in his letters (written towards the end of the first century) was also centred in Ephesus (1 John 2:18-22; 4:1; 2 John 9-11). Later the Ephesian church was troubled by another group of false teachers, the Nicolaitans. These people encouraged Christians to demonstrate their freedom by eating food that had been offered to idols and by engaging in sexual immorality (Rev 2:2,6; cf. 2:14-15). Unfortunately, the Ephesian Christians had become so concerned with opposing false teaching year after year, that in the process their love for Christ had lost its original warmth. They had become harsh, critical and self-satisfied. God warned them that if they did not change and regain their original spirit of love, he would act against them in judgment and bring their church to an end. But those who triumphed over these attitudes would enjoy the fulness of eternal life (Rev 2:1-7).

EPHOD

An ephod was a short sleeveless linen garment, something like a long shirt or coat. It was a common piece of Hebrew clothing (1 Sam 2:18; 2 Sam 6:14), but in most cases where the Bible mentions an ephod the reference is to an article of the high priest’s dress (Exod 28:4-30; 29:5). The high priest’s ephod was made of multi-coloured embroidered linen similar to the curtains of the tabernacle, but with gold thread woven into the cloth (Exod 39:2-3; cf. 26:31). It was held in place by two shoulder straps and bound at the waist by a sash (Exod 28:7-8). (For further details and an illustration of the high priest’s dress see PRIEST.) Since the ephod was the most distinctive article of the high priest’s dress, people often referred to priests as those who ‘wore the ephod’ (1 Sam 2:28; 14:3; 22:18; Hosea 3:4). Sometimes a priest was asked to ‘bring the ephod’. This was because within the flat pouch, or breastpiece, on the front of the ephod were two objects, the Urim and the Thummim, which the priest used to find out God’s will (1 Sam 23:9-12; 30:7-8; Ezra 2:63; see URIM AND THUMMIM). During the time of Israel’s unfaithfulness in the period of the judges, Gideon made a golden ephod that soon became an object of idolatrous worship (Judg 8:26-27). On another occasion idolatrous priests, who were not even legally entitled to be priests, wore the traditional priestly ephod (Judg 17:5-6; 18:14- 20).

EPHRAIM

Joseph and his Egyptian wife had two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim (Gen 41:50-52). When the aged Jacob gave his parting blessings to his family, he gave the firstborn’s blessing to Joseph instead of to Reuben (because of Reuben’s immorality with Jacob’s concubine; Gen 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chron 5:1-2). This meant that Joseph would father two tribes in Israel instead of one. Jacob therefore raised Joseph’s two sons to the same level as Jacob’s other sons, so that Joseph’s two sons would each have his own tribe (Gen 48:5-6). The tribe of the younger son Ephraim was destined to become stronger than that of the older son Manasseh (Gen 48:12-20).

Good territory

The tribe of Ephraim received as its inheritance possibly the best part of Canaan (cf. Gen 49:22-26). This was the central highland region between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea (Josh 16:1-10). (For information about its more important towns see BETHEL; JERICHO; JOPPA; SHECHEM; SHILOH.) Yet the Ephraimites were not satisfied. Since the fertile hills of the territory given to them were largely covered with forest, they complained that there was not enough land suitable for them to build villages to house all their people. Joshua told them to clear the forests and drive out the remaining Canaanite people and they would find that they had plenty of land (Josh 17:14-18; see also Judg 17:1; 2 Sam 18:6).

Political ambition

Ephraim considered itself to be the leading tribe in Israel, and showed a spirit of jealousy when denied the status it believed it deserved. It complained to Gideon when he did not invite it to the battle against the Midianites (Judg 8:1), and to Jephthah when he did not ask it to join the battle against the Ammonites (Judg 12:1). In particular, Ephraim was jealous of Judah, whom it saw as its competitor for leadership in Israel. When David (who was from the tribe of Judah) succeeded Saul as king of Israel, Ephraim supported Saul’s son as a rival king, but after two years was forced to admit defeat (2 Sam 2:4,8-10; 5:1-3). Some years later Absalom rebelled against David, and once again Ephraim appears to have supported the anti-David forces (2 Sam 18:6-8). When, after the death of Solomon, the northern tribes broke away from Judah, an Ephraimite led the revolt and became the first king of the breakaway kingdom (1 Kings 11:26-28; 12:20). This breakaway northern kingdom continued to call itself Israel, whereas the southern kingdom (which the dynasty of David continued to rule over in Jerusalem) became known as the kingdom of Judah. The northern kingdom Israel was so dominated by Ephraim that it was often called Ephraim (Isa 7:2,9,17; 28:1; Hosea 4:17; 5:3; 9:3; see ISRAEL).

EPICUREANS

Greek philosophers of the New Testament period belonged mainly to two schools, the Epicureans and the Stoics. The Epicureans were named after their founder, Epicurus, a philosopher who taught in Athens about 300 BC. They believed that the world is neither permanent nor stable, and therefore people should not become too involved in its affairs. They should aim for maximum contentment through living calmly and avoiding all pain, desire, unpleasant feelings and superstitious fears. That was the way the gods lived, and that was why they took no interest in human affairs. The Epicureans, with the Stoics, were members of the Areopagus, a council of philosophers that Paul addressed in Athens (Acts 17:18-19,22; see AREOPAGUS). The Epicureans would have agreed with Paul that God needs nothing from mere humans (Acts 17:25), but they refused to accept his teaching on the resurrection (Acts 17:31-32). In later times their rejection of God and pursuit of pleasure led to carefree living, greed and immorality.

ESAU

As the firstborn of Isaac’s twin sons, Esau was entitled to the family birthright. This meant that, upon his father’s death, he would receive twice the inheritance of any other sons and become family head. Moreover, in the case of Isaac’s firstborn, it included headship of God’s chosen people and the right to possess the land of Canaan. But Esau was an unspiritual and irresponsible person, preferring temporary benefits to lasting blessings. Foolishly he sold his birthright to his ruthless twin, Jacob (Gen 25:29-34; Heb 12:16). The custom was for the father to confirm the birthright by giving his special blessing before he died. Esau tried to gain this blessing ahead of Jacob, but again Jacob’s cunning defeated him (Gen 27:1-29). Overcome with misery and anger, Esau tried to kill Jacob, but Jacob found out and escaped (Gen 27:30- 38,41-45; Heb 12:17).

Although God’s purpose was that his promises to Abraham and Isaac be fulfilled through Jacob and not Esau, that did not excuse either of them for their disgraceful behaviour (Gen 25:23; Rom 9:10-13). Nevertheless, God had a blessing for Esau. Esau would not father the nation that God would make his own, but he would father a nation that would establish a name for itself in the region. This was the nation Edom, which occupied the barren regions south and east of the Dead Sea (Gen 27:39-40; see EDOM). Esau confirmed his position as being outside God’s covenant blessings by marrying firstly two local Hittite women, and later a daughter of Ishmael (Gen 26:34-35; 28:8-9). When Jacob returned to Canaan after twenty years, Esau went to meet him. Fearful of what might happen, Jacob begged Esau’s mercy, but Esau responded with such generous forgiveness that the dreaded meeting turned into a happy reunion (Gen 32:1-21; 33:1-16). The two brothers met again when together they buried their father Isaac (Gen 35:27-29).

ESCHATOLOGY

The word ‘eschatology’ comes from the Greek eschatos, meaning ‘last’, and commonly refers to the study of ‘the last things’. This is a vast subject, and the following outline refers the reader to articles in this Directory that deal with its many topics. In its broader aspects, eschatology is concerned with all matters relating to death and the afterlife (Ps 16:11; Dan 12:2; Luke 16:22-23; Heb 9:27-28; see DEATH; HADES; PARADISE; SHEOL). More specifically it is concerned with issues relating to the return of Jesus Christ and the new age that will follow (see JESUS CHRIST, sub-heading ‘Christ’s return and final triumph’). Human history is tied up with the mission of Jesus Christ. At his first coming Jesus brought God’s plan of salvation to its fulfilment through his life and work, and particularly through his death and resurrection. God intervened in human history, and the ‘last days’ began (Heb 1:1-2; 1 Peter 1:20; see PROPHECY; QUOTATIONS).

Those ‘last days’ have continued through the present age and will reach their climax at Christ’s return. The coming ‘day of the Lord’ will be that final intervention of God that brings human history to its destiny (Matt 24:29-31; 2 Peter 3:3-4,10; see ANTICHRIST; DAY OF THE LORD). To have a proper understanding of matters concerning Christ’s return, a person should consider them in relation to matters concerning Christ’s earthly ministry as recorded in the Gospels. Christ’s victory at his second coming will represent the triumphant climax of the kingdom that he brought at his first coming. The kingly Messiah and heavenly Son of man, having died for sin, will return to reign (Matt 25:31-34; see KINGDOM OF GOD; MESSIAH; MILLENNIUM; SON OF MAN).

The return of Christ will bring about the victorious resurrection of believers, but that resurrection is possible only because of the victorious resurrection of Christ (1 Cor 15:20-23; see RESURRECTION). Christ’s return will also lead to final judgment, which means judgment not just for believers, but for all people. The one who died to save people from condemnation and give them new life is the one who will finally declare whether they suffer eternal condemnation or enjoy the heavenly blessings of the new age (John 5:22; 2 Cor 5:10; see JUDGMENT; HEAVEN; HELL). At his first coming Christ dealt with sin and showed his power over it. When he returns he will remove sin and all its evil consequences finally and completely. His victory will include the healing of the physical world, the destruction of death and the punishment of Satan (1 Cor 15:25-26; Rev 20:10; see NATURE; DEATH; SATAN). Christ and his people together will enter into the full enjoyment of the eternal life that he has made possible for them. The ‘new heavens and new earth’ will be a new order of existence where God is supreme and all people find their full satisfaction in him (1 Cor 15:28; Rev 21:1-4; 22:1-6; see ETERNITY; LIFE).

ETERNITY

Most people find it difficult to imagine eternity. This is largely because the only kind of existence they have so far experienced is that of a world where everything happens within a framework of time and distance that can be measured. God alone understands eternity fully, because he alone is eternal (1 Tim 1:17). Human beings lives in a created order of which time is a part (Heb 1:2). Even the words they use to speak of eternity come from a world governed by time.

The meanings of words

When the Bible writers referred to eternity, they usually used the word for ‘age’. This was a word that denoted a length of time, without specifying its beginning or end. The writers used the word in relation to things that were very old or that would last for a very long time (Ps 24:7; 125:1; Hab 3:6; Rom 16:25). Concerning the past, the word could mean ‘a long time ago’ (Josh 24:2; Luke 1:70); concerning the future, it could mean ‘endlessness’ (Dan 2:44; 2 Peter 1:11). When they referred to immeasurable time, the writers may have used such expressions as ‘to all ages’ or ‘from age to age’, which have been translated as ‘from everlasting to everlasting’ and ‘for ever and ever’ (Neh 9:5; Ps 21:4; Rom 1:25; Eph 3:21; Jude 25).

The writers used similar expressions when they spoke of God as the eternal one (1 Chron 16:36; Ps 90:2; 106:48). Divine actions are called eternal, or everlasting, because of the character of the eternal God from whom they originate. This applies to both salvation and judgment (Isa 45:17; Jude 7), to life and destruction (John 17:2; 2 Thess 1:9). From a human standpoint, eternity is the age to come, in contrast to the present age (Mark 10:30; Eph 1:21). Eternal life, being the life of the age to come, is endless, because the age to come is endless. More importantly, it is life of a particular quality. It is a life that shares in some way the nature of God and that God gives through Jesus Christ (John 1:4; 5:21,24; 8:51; 17:2-3; see LIFE, sub-heading ‘Eternal life’). Even in the present age, believers in Jesus Christ have the life of the age to come – eternal life, the life of the kingdom of God (Matt 19:16,24; John 3:3,5,15; Col 1:13; see KINGDOM OF GOD).

Divine and human viewpoints

Jesus’ teaching concerning the nature of eternal life showed that it was more than merely life stretched out for ever. It was life of an entirely different order from the normal life of this world (John 4:14; 6:51,63; 17:3). Likewise eternity is not time stretched out for ever, but is something of an entirely different order. The realization of this helps to ease the difficulties that may arise in understanding God’s foreknowledge. God is not limited by time, and therefore he sees time differently from the way human beings see it (2 Peter 3:8). An illustration that may help is that of a rod suspended horizontally in mid-air in a room. The rod has a beginning and an end, and represents time.

The room represents eternity (assuming now that its floor, ceiling and walls are removed and it extends endlessly in all directions). From any point in the room (i.e. eternity), a person can see the whole rod (i.e. time). Human beings, who live in time, might be likened to an ant moving along the rod. They have a record of what is past, they are conscious of what is present, but they do not know what lies ahead. God, from the viewpoint of eternity, sees the whole of time as eternally present before him. (See also TIME.) It is therefore inadequate to think of God’s eternity solely as everlasting existence. God is not limited in any way. His characteristics and qualities are immeasurable in every aspect of his being (Deut 33:27; Ps 103:17; 145:13; Isa 54:8; Rom 1:20; 1 Tim 1:17; see GOD).

ETHICS

Ethics is a broad subject whose particular concern is with right conduct in human behaviour. This includes every aspect of people’s conduct, whether it involves others or not. People are answerable to God for all that they do (Heb 4:13; Rev 20:12). God’s standards From the beginning people had within them some knowledge of right and wrong. God gave them a revelation of the standards of conduct he required in human relationships, and each individual’s conscience judged that person according to those standards. This was so even when the person had rejected the knowledge of God (Rom 1:21-23; 2:14-15; cf. Matt 7:11; see CONSCIENCE; REVELATION). When God took the people of Israel into a covenant relationship with himself, he gave them a lawcode to regulate their national life. This written code was an application of the unwritten principles which God had placed within the human heart from the beginning but which people had neglected. These principles were based on the truth that the moral conduct of people should be a reflection of the moral character of God, in whose image they were made (Exod 19:6; Lev 11:44-45; 19:2; Matt 19:17; cf. Eph 4:24; see LAW). The ethics of this Israelite law-code concerned a person’s relationships with people and with God. In both cases the motive for right conduct was to be genuine love (Lev 19:17-18; Deut 6:3-7). Right conduct concerned all personal behaviour (e.g. Exod 20:12; 22:21-27; 23:1-8; Lev 18:6,19,22), yet it was more than merely a personal matter. People lived not in isolation but as part of a community, and God wanted the community as a whole to follow his standards (Exod 23:10-12,17; 32:7-10; Lev 19:9-10; Deut 20:10- 20). In giving his law to Israel at Mt Sinai, God’s purpose was not that as Israelites kept it they could earn the right to become his people. Rather he gave the law to a nation that he had already made his people (Exod 4:22; 6:6-8; 24:3-4). Each person was a guilty sinner and received salvation only through coming in faith and repentance to God (Exod 32:33; 34:6-7; Ps 51:1-4; Isa 1:16-20). Salvation was a gift of God’s grace, not a reward for keeping moral laws; though the person who received that salvation loved God’s law all the more and had an increased desire to keep it (Ps 119:14-16,44-48; Rom 9:31-32; Gal 3:10,18). Likewise in the new era introduced through Jesus Christ, no one is saved through keeping moral instructions, whether those instructions come from the law of Moses, the teachings of Jesus or the writings of the early Christian leaders. Salvation is by God’s grace, and repentant sinners receive it by faith. But again, having received it they should be diligent to produce good works (Eph 2:8-10; Titus 2:11-12; James 2:18,26; 1 Peter 2:9-12; see GOOD WORKS). Genuine love is once again the source of right behaviour. As new people indwelt by the Spirit of God, Christians can now produce the standard of righteousness that the law aimed at but could not itself produce (Rom 8:1-4; 13:8-10; 2 Cor 5:17; 1 John 2:3-6; see SANCTIFICATION).

Ethical teachings of Jesus

The foundation of Christian ethics is not what men and women themselves might choose to do, but what God through Christ has already done. Jesus was not primarily a teacher of ethics who showed people how to live a better life, but a Saviour who died and rose again to give repentant sinners an entirely new life (Rom 6:1-11; 2 Cor 5:15,17; 1 Peter 1:18-23; 4:1). God has made believers his children, and they must now show this to be true in practice. Because God has acted in a certain way, Christians must act in a certain way (1 Cor 6:20; Eph 4:1; 5:1; 1 John 3:9-10; 4:7). Jesus’ teaching must therefore be understood in relation to his mission. He was not a social reformer, but the Saviour-Messiah who brought the kingdom of God into the world. He did not draw up a code of ethics, but urged people to humble themselves and enter the kingdom of God. He knew that people would have worthwhile change in their behaviour only when they were truly changed within (Matt 4:23; 5:3,21- 22; 12:28; 15:19-20; 18:4; 19:23; see KINGDOM OF GOD). In dealing with standards of human behaviour, Jesus did not introduce any new set of values. He referred people back to the values which were already clearly set out in the Old Testament but which people had either ignored or distorted (Matt 5:17,43-44; 19:8-9; 22:37-40; see SERMON ON THE MOUNT). Neither did Jesus present his teaching in the form of regulations applicable to all people in all circumstances, as if it were the law-code of a civil government. His requirement, for example, that people sell their houses or leave their families applied not in all cases, but only in those where people had put their interests before God’s (Matt 19:16-22; Luke 9:57-62). But the principle on which that particular instruction was based (namely, that discipleship involves sacrifice) applies to everyone (Matt 10:34-39; 16:24-26). If Jesus had set out a law-code, its regulations would have been suited to the way of life in first century Palestine, but unsuited to other cultures and eras. Instead, as each occasion arose, Jesus emphasized whatever aspect of God’s truth was related to the circumstances (e.g. Matt 22:15-22; Mark 12:38-40; Luke 14:8-11). He also left behind with his followers the gift of the Holy Spirit who, generation after generation, helps Christians to interpret his words and apply their meaning. The teaching of Jesus never goes out of date (John 14:15-17; 16:13-15).

Motives and behaviour

Because God’s work of redemption through Christ is the basis of Christian ethics, the relationship that believers have with Christ will largely determine their behaviour. Their understanding of Christian doctrine will enlighten them concerning Christian conduct. Their appreciation of what Christ has done will deepen their love for him and give them the desire to please him. They will want to obey his teachings (John 14:15; 15:4,10; 2 Cor 8:9; 1 Thess 2:4; 1 Tim 1:5; 6:3; Heb 13:21). This obedience is not the fearful keeping of stern demands, but the joyful response to Christ’s love (1 John 2:1-5; 4:10-12; 5:3; cf. Matt 11:29-30; see OBEDIENCE). It is not bondage to a new set of laws, but a freedom to produce the character that no set of laws can ever produce (Rom 8:2; Gal 5:1,13; Col 2:20-23; see FREEDOM). The fact that Christian obedience is free from legalism is no excuse for moral laziness. Christians have a duty to be obedient (Rom 6:16; 1 Cor 9:21; 2 Cor 10:5; 1 Peter 1:14-16). They need to exercise constant self-discipline (1 Cor 9:24-27), and they will be able to do this through the work of Christ’s Spirit within them (Gal 5:22-23; see SELF-DISCIPLINE). The work of the Holy Spirit helps believers produce that Christian character which is the goal of Christian ethics. The motivating force behind the conduct of Christians is their desire to be like Christ and so bring glory to God (Rom 13:14; 1 Cor 10:31; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:9-10,17; cf. Matt 5:48). Being like Christ does not mean that Christians in different cultures and eras must try to copy the actions of the Messiah who lived in first century Palestine. It means rather that they have to produce the sort of character Jesus displayed and be as faithful in their callings as Jesus was in his (John 13:15; 15:12; Eph 4:24; 5:1-2; 1 Peter 2:21; 1 John 2:6). Christians know that in some bodily way they are to become like Christ at his return, and this should encourage them to become more like him in moral character now (Phil 3:17-21; 1 Thess 3:13; Titus 2:11-14; 1 John 3:2-3). Christians live with the sure expectation that a better life awaits them in the heavenly kingdom. This, however, is no reason to try to escape the problems of the present life (1 Cor 15:54,58; Phil 1:23-24; 2 Tim 2:10-15). On the contrary, the affairs of the present life help develop personal character and communion with God, which give meaning to life now and will last through death into the age to come (1 Cor 13:8-13; 1 Peter 1:3-9). The awareness of future judgment creates for Christians both expectancy and caution. This is not because they want rewards or fear punishment, but because the day of judgment is the climax of the present life and the beginning of the new (Matt 25:14-30; 1 Cor 3:12-15; 2 Cor 5:10; 2 Tim 4:6-8; see JUDGMENT; PUNISHMENT; REWARD).

Applying Christian ethics to society

Christian ethical teaching is aimed, first of all, not at making society Christian, but at making Christians more Christlike. Their character and behaviour must reflect their new life in Christ (Rom 6:4; Eph 4:22-24; Col 2:6-7). But Christian ethics are not a purely private affair. Christians are part of a society where Christ has placed them as his representatives, and they must apply their Christian values to the affairs of that society (Matt 5:13-16; John 17:15-18; see WITNESS; WORLD). The immediate community in which Christians must give expression to their standards is the family (Eph 5:22-6:4; see FAMILY; MARRIAGE). Beyond the family is the larger community where they live and work, and where they inevitably meet conduct that is contrary to their Christian understanding of righteousness, truth and justice (Eph 6:5-9; see JUSTICE; WORK). Over all is the civil government. Although Christian faith does not in itself make people experts on economics, politics or sociology, it does teach them moral values by which they can assess a government’s actions (Rom 13:1-7; see GOVERNMENT). Since the Creator knows what is best for his creatures, Christian ethics are the best for people everywhere. Christians should therefore do all they can to promote

God’s standards.

A society will benefit if its laws are based on God’s standards (Exod 20:13-17; Deut 5:29; Rom 13:8-10), though Christians should realize that it is not possible to enforce all those standards by law. Civil laws can deal with actions that have social consequences, but they cannot deal with the attitudes that cause those actions (cf. Matt 5:21-22; Eph 4:25-32). In addition, the ethical standards of a society may be so poor that laws have to be less than ideal in order to control and regulate an unsatisfactory state of affairs (e.g. Exod 21:1-11; Deut 24:1-4; see DIVORCE; SLAVERY). This does not mean that Christians may lower their moral standards to the level of the civil law; for something that is legal according to government-made laws may still be morally wrong (cf. Matt 19:7-9). Nor does it mean (as the system known as Situation Ethics claims) that nothing is absolutely right or wrong, and that in certain situations Christians are free to disobey God’s moral instructions, provided they feel they are acting out of love to others. The more knowledge Christians have of God’s law, the more he holds them responsible to obey it (Luke 12:48; John 9:41; James 2:10-12; cf. Amos 3:2).

ETHIOPIA

Apart from Egypt, Ethiopia is the most frequently mentioned African country in the Bible. It was sometimes called Cush and its people were dark-skinned. It bordered Egypt to Egypt’s south and, like Egypt, was centred on the Nile River. The region it occupied is today the northern part of Sudan (Isa 18:1-2; Jer 13:23; Ezek 29:10; for map of the region see EGYPT). To most of the people of Palestine, Ethiopia was the southernmost country they knew of. Writers frequently used its name poetically to symbolize the unlimited extent of God’s sovereign rule (Ps 68:31; Isa 11:11; Ezek 30:4-5; Zeph 3:10). Individuals from Ethiopia feature occasionally in the Old Testament story.

During Israel’s journey from Egypt to Canaan, Moses married an Ethiopian woman, probably after his first wife had died (Num 12:1). In later times an Ethiopian who worked in the palace of the Judean king saved the life of God’s prophet Jeremiah (Jer 38:7-13; 39:15-18). Ethiopia features in the biblical record mainly during the period of the divided Israelite kingdom, when it attacked Judah on at least two occasions (2 Chron 12:2-4; 14:9-15). Later it gained control over Upper Egypt, and for about half a century exercised a strong influence over Egypt. It even challenged Assyria, which was the leading power of the time (2 Kings 19:8-9; Nahum 3:8-9). The challenge brought little success and soon Ethiopia, along with its ally Egypt, suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Assyria (Isa 20:3-6). It subsequently fell under the control of Babylon, and then under the control of Persia (Esther 1:1). In pre-New Testament times, Ethiopia was one of the many countries where Jews settled and established communities. Some Ethiopians attended the Jewish synagogues and became worshippers of the God of Israel (see DISPERSION; PROSELYTE). One of these worshippers of God, or ‘God-fearers’, was among the first non-Jewish people to become Christians in the time of the early church (Acts 8:27-38).

EUPHRATES

Among the rivers of west Asia, the Euphrates was the largest. It was often referred to as ‘the great river’ or simply ‘the River’ (Gen 15:18; Deut 1:7; Ezra 8:36; Neh 2:9; 3:7; Isa 7:20). The territory of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers was known as Mesopotamia, and formed part of the ancient land of Babylon. This was the region where the garden of Eden was located (Gen 2:10-14). The ancient city of Ur was on the Euphrates (Gen 11:28; see UR). The Euphrates formed the eastern boundary of the territory that God promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 15:18; Deut 11:24).

Only at isolated times, however, did Israel extend its power that far (2 Sam 8:3). During the time of the Assyrian Empire, the Euphrates formed a line of defence for Assyria against attacks from the west, and its name became synonymous with Assyria (Isa 7:20; 8:7; Jer 2:18). When Babylon conquered Assyria in 612 BC, Egypt tried to prevent further Babylonian expansion by moving its army north through Judah to Carchemish on the western bank of the Euphrates (2 Kings 23:29; 2 Chron 35:20). But Babylon conquered Egypt at Carchemish and spread its rule west as far as the Mediterranean Sea and Egypt (2 Kings 24:7; Jer 46:2,6,10). The city of Babylon, capital of the Babylonian Empire, was situated on the river Euphrates (Dan 4:29-30; see BABYLON). In the Persian Empire, which came after the Babylonian, the Euphrates formed the boundary between the Empire’s eastern and western parts (Ezra 4:10; 5:3; Neh 2:9).

EVANGELIST

The English words ‘evangelist’ and ‘gospel’ come from the same word in the Greek. An evangelist is one who declares, preaches, brings, announces or proclaims the gospel (or good news). The noun ‘evangelist’ occurs only occasionally in the New Testament (Acts 21:8; Eph 4:11; 2 Tim 4:5), but the verb forms occur frequently (Matt 4:23; Luke 20:1; Acts 8:25; 14:7; Rom 10:15; 1 Cor 9:16; 15:1; Gal 4:13; cf. Isa 52:7; 61:1; see GOSPEL). Although all Christians should make known the good news of Jesus Christ to others (Acts 4:20; 8:4; 11:20), evangelists are particularly gifted by God for this task.

They are one of God’s gifts to the church (Eph 4:11). In the early church they were mainly concerned with proclaiming the gospel to those who had not heard it, and establishing churches in places where previously there were none (Acts 8:5,40; 14:21; 16:10; Rom 10:14-15; 15:19-20; 2 Cor 10:16; see MISSION). Even established churches had need for someone to do the work of an evangelist among them (2 Tim 4:5), for there was a constant necessity to make known the facts of the gospel. Men such as Peter, John, Philip, Barnabas, Paul, Silas and Timothy were evangelists. Some of them were at the same time apostles, prophets, pastors and teachers. This indicates, firstly, that there was considerable overlap between the gifts and, secondly, that several gifts could be combined within one person (cf. Acts 2:42; 14:14; 15:32; 1 Tim 2:7; 4:13-16; see APOSTLE; PASTOR; PREACHING; TEACHER). No matter how the servants of the gospel may be classified or what era they may live in, the motivating force in their life and ministry is the love of God that they have experienced through Christ.

They are thankful to God for the privilege of engaging in Christian service, and this makes them want to please their Master (2 Cor 5:14; Eph 3:7; 1 Tim 1:12-16; see SERVANT). Evangelists knows that their work may involve risks, disappointments and hardships (Acts 15:26; 2 Cor 11:23-28; 2 Tim 2:10; 3:10-11). But they have an obligation to carry out the task God has entrusted to them, regardless of the personal cost (Matt 28:19; Rom 1:14; 1 Cor 9:16-17). They have a concern for those who have not yet heard or believed the gospel, and this drives them on to make it known; for only the gospel can save people from Satan’s power and give them eternal life (Rom 10:14; 2 Cor 4:1-6; 5:11; Acts 20:19-26; cf. Ezek 3:17-21).

EVE

Originally the name ‘Eve’ was related to the word for ‘life’, and this was why Adam gave the name to his wife. She was ‘the mother of all living’ (Gen 3:20). God gave her to Adam as one equal with him in nature but opposite to him in sex, to be his companion and counterpart (Gen 1:27; 2:18-25). However, she too readily listened to the temptations of Satan and is blamed for leading Adam into sin (Gen 3:1-7; 2 Cor 11:3; 1 Tim 2:13-15; see ADAM).

EVERLASTING

See ETERNITY.

EVIL

If Christians believe in a God of love and power who created and controls the world, how can they explain the presence and power of evil in the world? This question commonly puzzles people, but the Bible gives no direct answer to it. As usual the Bible’s response to the problem is practical rather than theoretical. It is more concerned with helping people develop character than with satisfying intellectual curiosity. And as people accept that help, they receive answers to some of the problems (cf. John 7:17). (Concerning the superior knowledge that Gnostics claimed to have regarding good and evil see KNOWLEDGE.)

Human nature

God created the world good and he wanted the people of his creation to enjoy it with him (Gen 1:31; 1 Tim 4:4; Heb 4:4,10). But since he created them as morally responsible beings with a freedom to make their own decisions, the possibility existed that they might misuse their freedom. They might choose to do what they knew they should not do (Gen 2:15-17). Maturity would come through making correct moral choices. The self-denial involved in rejecting tempting alternatives would strengthen character (cf. Heb 5:8,14). God wanted people to live in a relationship of love with him and with their fellow human beings; but they could not love if they were not free. If they were robots, they could do what their maker programmed them to do, but they could not love or enjoy anything. However, as freedom produced the possibility of devotion and goodness, so also it produced the possibility of rebellion and evil. Evil was not a product of the creative activity of God, but a product of the wrong use of freedom by morally responsible beings (Gen 3:1-7; James 1:12-13).

Life in a spoiled world

The Bible commonly speaks of evil in two different but related ways. Firstly, it speaks of evil in a moral sense similar to that considered above, where evil is the opposite of moral goodness (Prov 8:13; Jer 7:24; Micah 2:1; Matt 5:45; 15:19; Rom 7:19,21; 2 Thess 3:2; for details see SIN). Satan, through whom this evil entered the human race, is fittingly called ‘the evil one’ (Gen 3:1; Matt 13:19; 1 John 2:13; 5:19; see SATAN). Secondly, the Bible speaks of evil in a more general sense, where it refers to calamities, conflicts, sufferings, misfortunes and even to things such as bad health and bad fruit. The word again means the opposite of good, but with a non-moral meaning (Deut 7:15; 2 Sam 15:14; Matt 7:17; Luke 16:25). Yet there is a connection between these two uses of ‘evil’. Because the evil of sin has infected the world, calamities and misfortunes have become part of life in the world. When the Old Testament says that God sends both good and evil, it is referring not to moral good and moral evil, but to life’s blessings and troubles. Israelites in Old Testament times acknowledged God’s overall control in all the affairs of life, both good and bad (Job 2:10; Isa 45:7). They saw that the evils of conflict, disaster and destruction were often God’s means of punishing the wicked (1 Sam 16:14; Jer 35:17; Amos 3:6).

No cause for despair

Although the entrance of sin into the world has spoiled God’s purposes for the human race, it has not overthrown them. God can bring good out of evil (Gen 50:20; Rom 8:28). The troubles of life are not always God’s judgments for specific wrongdoings. God usually does not explain why particular evils occur or why people suffer from them. Nevertheless, he consistently uses those evils to bring positive benefits (Hab 1:13; 3:17-19; Luke 13:1-5; John 9:2-3; 2 Cor 12:7-9; see SUFFERING). This, however, does not excuse the people who cause the evils (Isa 10:5-11; Jer 51:5-10,34-36; Matt 26:24; Acts 2:23; Rom 3:8). Probably the most feared of all evils is death, but God uses even death to fulfil his purposes for good. Through death he has conquered death and delivered people from the power of evil (Heb 2:14; see DEATH). Through Christ’s death, believers can enjoy victory over evil while still living in the present evil world (Rom 6:7-11,14; Gal 1:4; see SALVATION). They will enjoy final victory when Christ returns to remove all evil, even to its last trace, and bring in God’s new heaven and new earth (1 Cor 15:25-28; Rev 21:4,27; 22:1-3).

EXECUTION

Israelite law laid down the death penalty for certain offences, some of them religious, others civil (Lev 20:2,10,27; 24:16-17; Num 15:32-36; Deut 13:6-10; 22:20-24; 24:7). Even under the Roman system of law that operated in New Testament times, Paul accepted that the government had the right to carry out the death sentence in certain cases (Acts 25:11; cf. Rom 13:3-4). Many of Israel’s laws were specifically related to the particular relationship that existed between God and Israel under the covenant (e.g. Deut 13:6-10; cf. 5:2,6-7). However, the law that laid down the death penalty for murderers was based on a command that God gave long before the nation Israel existed. God’s command was related to the fundamental sacredness of human life, for human beings exist in God’s image. God therefore laid down that if any person wilfully killed another without divine permission, that person was no longer fit to enjoy God’s gift of life (Gen 9:3-6; cf. Exod 21:23; Num 35:30-34). The normal Israelite method of execution was stoning.

There had to be at least two witnesses to the crime, and these had to participate publicly in the execution by throwing the first stones. This no doubt impressed upon people that they had to be absolutely certain in making an accusation against anyone (Lev 24:14; Deut 17:6-7; John 8:7; Acts 7:58). The dead body was then hung on a tree till evening as a sign that the executed person was under the curse of God (Deut 21:23). Under the Roman administration of the New Testament era, prisoners were executed by either crucifixion or beheading (Matt 27:22; Mark 6:24-28; Acts 12:2; see CRUCIFIXION). Jews could pass the death sentence upon their own people for offences relating to Jewish law, but they could not carry it out. They had to hand over the prisoner to the Roman authorities, who alone had the power of execution (Matt 27:1-2). Yet when the Jews illegally stoned Stephen to death, the Roman authorities took no action against them. They probably thought it wise not to interfere when the Jews were so stirred up (Acts 7:58; cf. Matt 27:24; Acts 12:2-3).

EXILE

In the Old Testament ‘the exile’, or ‘the captivity’, refers to the period of approximately seventy years that followed Babylon’s conquest of Jerusalem and deportation of the people into captivity in Babylon (2 Kings 24:1-25:21; Jer 25:11-12; 29:10; Dan 1:1-4; Ezek 1:1-3). (For details of the successive stages of this conquest and deportation see JUDAH, TRIBE AND KINGDOM. For details of life in captivity in Babylon see DANIEL; EZEKIEL.) The exile came to an end after Persia’s conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, when the new ruler gave permission to the captive Jews to return to their homeland (2 Chron 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-4; Isa 48:20; see CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF; EZRA). In the New Testament ‘the exile’ refers to the life of Christians in the present world. Since Christians are considered to be a citizen of heaven, their present life is like that of foreigners or pilgrims in an alien country (Phil 3:20; Heb 13:14; 1 Peter 1:1,17; 2:11; see FOREIGNER).

EZION-GEBER

Ezion-geber (along with its twin town Elath, or Eloth) was situated on the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqabah, the north-eastern arm of the Red Sea. It was the port from which shipping routes went east and overland routes went north (Deut 2:8; 1 Kings 9:26). This meant that the nation that controlled Eziongeber controlled much of the trade in the region (1 Kings 9:27-28; 10:22). (For fuller details of Eziongeber’s significance see EDOM.)